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A VISION  OF  THE  PICTURESQUE  WEST. 


THE 


PICTURESQUE  WEST 


OUR 


Western  Empire  Beyond  the  Mississippi. 


CONTAINING 

THE  MOST  COMPLETE  DESCRIPTION,  FROM  OFFICIAL  AND.  OTHER  AUTHENTIC  SOURCES, 
OF  THE  GEOGRAPHY,  GEOLOGY,  AND  NATURAL  HISTORY,  THE  CLIMATE,  SOIL, 
AGRICULTURE,  AND  THE  MINERAL  PRODUCTS,  THE  CROPS,  AND  HEEDS 
AND  FLOCKS,  THE  SOCIAL  CONDITION,  AND  FUTURE  PROS- 
PECTS OF  THE  WHOLE  REGION  LYING  BETWEEN  THE 
MISSISSIPPI  AND  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN. 


BY  H.  L.  WILLIAMS. 


WITH  NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS 

BY  THE  MOST  DISTINGUISHED  ARTISTS. 


NEW  YORK: 

HURST  & COMPANY, 

122  Nassau  Street. 


<=^1  7.  r 

VJ  L>  '{ 


THE  PICTURESQUE  WEST 

OR 

OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE  BEYOND  THE 

MISSISSIPPI. 

FART  1. 


CHAPTER  I. 

What  it  Comprehends — The  West  beyond  the  Mississippi — Its  Area  and 
Extent  — Comparison  with  other  Empires  — Climate — Mountains — 
Natural  Phenomena — Soil — The  Alkaline,  Volcanic  and  Bad  Lands  ” 
— Predominance  of  Arable  and  Pasture  Lands — Nutritious  Grasses  in 
THE  Grazing  Lands. 

“ Our  Western  Empire”  is  of  greater  extent  than  any  other 
Empire  of  Christendom  except  Russia  and  Brazil,  and  in 
population,  enterprise,  and  advantages  for  future  growth  is  the 
peer  of  any;  but  it  has  no  monarch,  hereditary  or  elective,  to 
rule  its  wide  domain.  It  forms  a large  part — more  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  Great  Republic  of  the  United  States  of  America,  and 
over  all  its  vast  extent,  an  intelligent  and  industrious,  moral  and 
capable  people  rule  themselves.  Their  chief  magistrates,  their 
governors  and  executive  officers,  are  men  of  the  people,  selected 
by  the  people,  for  short  terms  of  service,  and  replaced  by  others, 
when  those  terms  expire. 

What,  then,  do  we  understand  “Our  Western  Empire”  to 
comprehend?  All  of  that  portion  of  the  United  States  lying 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  including  the  new  Territory  of  Alaska. 
Its  northern  boundaries  are  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  Behrinor’s 

o 

Sea  and  Straits  west  of  the  140th  meridian;  and  east  of  that, 
British  America  ; its  western  limit  the  Pacific  Ocean  ; its  southern, 
Mexico  and  the  Mexican  Gulf ; its  eastern,  the  Mississippi  river 

(9) 


lO 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


from  its  mouth  to  the  Canada  line,  and  the  west  line  of  British 
America,  above  the  fifty-fourth  parallel.  It  has  an  area  of 
2,671,884  square  miles,  of  which  577,390  or  abojt  one-fifth, 
belongs  to  Alaska.  It  extends  over  42°  of  latitude,  and  in  its 
farthest  western  boundary,  “ by  Ounalaska’s  lonely  shore,’’  over 
103°  of  longitude. 

Leaving  Alaska  out  of  the  question,  as  a mere  dependency, 
the  remainder  of  “ Our  Western  Empire”  comprises  24°  of  latitude 
and  36°  of  longitude,  having  a breadth  of  nearly  2,000  miles 
from  east  to  west,  and  a length  from  north  to  south  of  1,700 
miles,  with  an  area  of  2,094,494  square  miles.  The  whole  of 
Europe  except  Russia,  including  the  great  German  Empire,  the 
Austro-Hungarian  Empire,  the  Republic  of  France,  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  the  Kingdoms  of  Turkey, 
Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  Sweden,  Norway  and  Denmark,  and  the 
minor  States  and  principalities,  have  in  all  only  an  area  of 
1,678,791  square  miles,  about  four-fifths  of  “Our  Western 
Empire  ” exclusive  of  Alaska,  or  including  it,  less  than  three-fifths. 
Its  population  is  of  course  much  less  than  that  of  the  larger 
European  States,  though  somewhat  greater  than  that  of  the 
Brazilian  Empire,  and  increasing  at  a rate  never  equalled  in  the 
world’s  history. 

No  empire  in  the  world  has  a greater  diversity  of  climate  ; 
from  the  more  than  six  months’  winter  of  the  northern  border, 
and  the  mountainous  regions,  on  some  of  which  rest  eternal  snows, 
to  the  tropical  heats  of  Arizona  and  Southern  Texas,  there  is  the 
greatestpossiblediversityof  moisture  and  drought,  of  heatand  cold, 
of  moderate,  equable  and  health-giving  temperature,  and  of  rapid 
change,  and  fickle,  inconstant  skies.  Like  other  large  empires,  it 
has  great  diversities  of  surface.  Three  ranges  of  lofty  mountains 
traverse  it  from  north  to  south  with  their  numerous  outlying 
spurs,  their  broad  plateaux  and  table-lands  rising  to  a height  of 
6,000  to  9,000  feet,  their  mesas  or  isolated  flat-topped  mountain 
summits,  their  deep  and  terrible  canons,  and  their  long  valleys, 
sometimes  narrow  and  precipitous,  sometimes  broad  seas  of  ver- 
dure and  flowers.  These  are  : the  Rocky  Mountains,  appropri- 
ately named  “ the  backbone  of  the  Continent,”  and  occupying  a 


THE  WEST  BEYOND  THE  MISSISSIPPI.  n 

position  about  midway  between  the  Mississippi  river  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean  ; west  of  these,  and  parallel  with  them,  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  or  Snowy  Range,  whose  peaks  tower  up  into  heights 
corresponding  with  those  of  the  Alps  ; and  still  farther  west,  and 
looking  out  upon  the  Pacific,  the  Coast  Range,  generally  of  lower 
altitude,  but  containing  some  lofty  summits,  whose  snow-clad 
tops  are  the  landmarks  of  the  coast.  Between  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  the  Sierra  Neyada,  is  the  great  Utah  or  Salt  Lake 
Basin,  a vast  depressed  tract,  none  of  whose  streams  flow  out- 
ward, and  some  of  whose  lakes  are  salt  and  bitter.  It  has  also 
its  volcanic  regions,  and  areas  of  erosion,  where  Dame  Nature  has 
played  most  fantastic  tricks,  now  rearing  lofty  statues,  monu- 
ments, castles,  cathedrals,  gateways,  now  scooping  out  vast  series 
of  basins  of  mineral  waters  either  hot  or  cold,  such  as  put  all 
artificial  baths  to  shame ; anon  sending  at  intervals  its  geyser- 
fountains  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  into  the  air;  or  filling  the 
quaking  and  trembling  earth  with  jets  of  hot  steam,  reeking  with 
sulphurous  odors.  At  some  points,  after  a fearful  descent  into 
some  apparently  dark  and  gloomy  ravine  or  canon,  all  the  hills 
or  mountains  around  one  seem  to  have  put  on  their  holiday 
attire;  one  has  donned  for  its  bridal  veil  a beautiful  and  semi- 
transparent waterfall,  whose  height  is  so  great  that  the  water 
seems  pulverized  into  glittering  dust  ere  it  reaches  the  valley ; 
another,  with  a greater  supply  of  water,  forms  four  or  five  gigantic 
cascades,  each  higher  than  Niagara,  in  its  downward  career; 
while  still  another,  in  a rift  between  the  mountain  summits,  forms 
a stream  of  moderate  size  in  a perpendicular  fall,  a thousand  feet 
or  more,  sheer  down  into  the  valley.  Broad  lakes,  some  of  them 
salt  and  some  fresh,  with  many  outlets  or  with  none,  are  found 
on  mountain  tops  or  in  the  centre  of  wide  valleys ; while,  as  we 
have  said,  one  vast  basin  has  its  own  system  of  lakes  and  rivers 
which  find  no  way  of  reaching  the  sea. 

Like  other  empires,  not  all  the  land  has  a rich  and  fertile  soil. 
There  are  mountains,  where  the  rocks  are  cold,  bleak,  bare  and 
precipitous  ; there  are  canons  and  ravines,  whose  nearly  perpen- 
dicular walls,  from  3,000  to  6,000  feet  in  height,  only  let  in  the 
sunlight  at  midday,  and  their  clayey  and  rocky  sides,  of  parti' 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


1 2 

colored  hues,  afford  no  hold  for  weed,  vine,  shrub  or  tree.  There 
are  plains,  plateaux  and  7nesas  covered  with  alkaline  powder,  and 
having  as  their  only  vegetation  the  gray,  lichen-hued  sage-brush; 
plains  on  which  the  gentle  rain  and  soft  falling  dew  seldom  or  never 
descends — yet  these  monotonous  and  apparently  barren  plains, 
under  the  influence  of  irrigation,  yield  most  abundant  crops,  and 
even  the  despised  sage-brush  furnishes  a delicious  pasturage  for 
cattle.  There  are  also  considerable  tracts  where,  in  former  times, 
the  eroding  influences  of  mountain  streams  have  cut  the  deep 
strata  of  clay  into  the  most  fantastic  forms — lands  so  utterly 
barren,  that  no  toil  could  extract  from  them  the  least  vestige  of 
a crop — the  “ Bad  Lands  ” of  the  Canadian  trappers  ; and  there 
are  also  some  stretches  of  volcanic  lands,  for  one  of  which  the 
foul  and  mephitic  vapors,  and  the  earthquake  shocks,  have 
prompted  the  expressive  name  of  Death  Valley. 

But  while  these  extraordinary  displays  of  the  power  of  natural 
forces  render  this  Great  West  a true  Wonderland,  they  really 
comprise  but  a small  proportion  of  its  surface,  and  no  region  of 
equal  extent  has  a larger  proportion  of  available  and  productive 
lands.  The  quantity  of  arable  soil  is  immense.  The  wheat 
fields  of  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Northern  and  Southeastern  Dakota, 
Kansas  and  Nebraska,  the  lands  suited  to  the  growth  of  Indian 
corn  in  these  States  and  Territories,  and  in  Missouri,  Arkansas 
and  the  Indian  Territory,  and  in  portions  of  Colorado  and  New 
Mexico,  the  cotton  lands  of  Texas,  Arkansas  and  New  Mexico, 
and,  on  the  Pacific  slope,  the  wheat  and  barley  fields  and  the 
vineyards  and  orchards  of  California,  the  wheat  and  corn  fields 
of  Oregon  and  Washington,  are  beyond  all  comparison  for  ex- 
cellence, on  this  continent  or  any  other. 

In  the  way  of  grazing  lands,  no  other  country  can  compare 
with  them.  There  are  not  only  the  cattle  upon  a thousand  hills 
or  plains,  but  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  of  cattle  on  each 
vast  plain  or  mountain  slope.  The  States  and  Territories  of 
Texas,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Utah,  North- 
western Dakota,  Montana,  Idaho,  Oregon,  Washington  and  Cali- 
fornia, can  furnish,  within  a few  years,  all  the  beef  and  mutton 
needed  to  feed  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  grasses  here  are 


THE  GREAT  AMERICAN  DESERT:  WHERE  IS  IT?  I 3 

more  nutritious  and  fattening,  and  give  to  the  flesh  of  the  cattle 
a more  gamey  flavor  than  those  of  any  other  known  country;  and 
even  those  lands  which  were  at  first  reckoned  as  portions  of  the 
Great  American  Desert,  lands  given  over  to  alkaline  deposits 
and  sage-brush,  and  on  which  there  was  but  very  little  rainfall, 
now  prove  admirably  adapted  to  pasturage,  and,  either  with  or 
without  irrigation,  most  bounteous  in  their  production  of  grain 
and  root  crops.  And  in  this  connection  we  may  well  raise  the 
question  which  we  next  discuss. 


CHAPTER  II. 

The  Great  American  Desert  : Where  is  it? — The  Hundredth  Meridian 
— “ Eli  Perkins’s  ” Scare — The  Facts  in  Reply — Colonel  (Brevet  Brig- 
adier-General) Hazen  on  the  Northern  Pacific — Governor  Howard’s. 
Answer,  and  other  Facts — Dakota — Wyoming  and  its  Agriculture — 
Montana — B.  R.  and  Mr.  Z.  L.  White  on  its  Crops — The  small  Modicum 
OF  Truth  in  these  “Desert”  Stories — The  reported  “Desert” 
beyond  the  Rockies — The  Utah  and  Nevada  Desert — Testimony  of 
Surveyors-General — The  Texan  Desert  and  Arizona — The  Great 
American  Desert  a Myth. 

Thirty  or  forty  years  ago  all  our  maps  had  a wide  space,  and 
some  of  them  two  or  three  wide  spaces,  inscribed,  “Great  Amer- 
ican Desert.”  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  present  States  of  Kansas, 
Nebraska  and  Colorado,  and  Western  Minnesota  ; the  Territories 
of  Wyoming,  Dakota,  Montana,  and  Idaho,  Western  Texas,, 
and  after  we  had  conquered  “ a piece  ” from  Mexico,  Arizona, 
most  of  New  Mexico,  Utah  and  Nevada,  were  included  in  this 
comprehensive  designation.  By  and  by  silver,  and  some  gold, 
were  found  in  Nevada,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Pike’s  Peak, 
in  what  is  now  Colorado ; but  though  the  existence  of  the  pre- 
cious metals  there  could  not  be  denied,  yet  the  terrors  of  the 
desert  to  be  passed  through  (terrors  of  whose  reality  the  wagon- 
trail  marked  at  almost  every  step  by  skeletons  of  cattle,  and  too 
often,  alas ! by  the  bones  of  emigrants,  gave  most  ghastly  proof) 
were  such  that  only  the  most  stout-hearted  could  brave  them. 
After  some  years  the  tide  of  emigration,  which  at  first  had 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


H 

been  confined  to  the  eastern  counties  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska, 
and  had  not  reached  the  western  counties  of  Iowa,  and  still  less 
those  of  Minnesota,  began  to  rise  and  overflow  the  adjacent 
counties  and  districts.  The  Union  Pacific,  the  Northern  Pacific, 
the  Kansas  Pacific,  and  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe 
Railways  had  plunged  into  this  desert,  and  being  all  land  grant 
roads,  had  made  the  discovery  that  these  lands  were  not  really  a 
desert,  but  were  capable  of  yielding  excellent  crops,  and  of  fur- 
nishing superior  pasturage  to  cattle  and  sheep.  The  line  of 
settlement  has  advanced  with  each  year  till  now  it  has  reached 
the  loist  meridian  west  from  Greenwich,  in  Kansas,  Nebraska 
and  Dakota,  and  overleaping  all  barriers  has  extended  to  the 
foothills  and  peaks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  Colorado, 
Wyoming  and  Montana,  and  with  moderate  irrigation  has  pro- 
duced from  these  supposed  desert-lands  the  most  astonishing 
crops,  and  has  furnished,  as  we  have  already  said,  pasturage  so 
rich  and  abundant,  to  hundreds  of  thousands  of  cattle  and  sheep, 
that  their  flesh  is  more  highly  prized  than  any  other  in  the 
market. 

Yet  there  have  not  been  wanting  those  who  from  one  motive 
or  another,  have  sought  to  depreciate  these  lands,  and  have 
declared,  in  the  face  of  the  most  conclusive  evidence,  that  the 
whole  region  west  of  the  looth  meridian  was  a barren  desert, 
incapable  of  producing  crops  or  furnishing  pasturage  sufficient 
for  the  subsistence  of  men  or  animals,  and  that  it  would  remain 
so  until  God  changed  the  physical  laws  which  govern  the  distri- 
bution of  clouds,  and  rain,  levelled  the  mountains,  and  made  the 
climate  like  that  of  the  East.  It  is  very  easy  to  theorize  on  these 
matters,  and  to  demonstrate  that  because,  according  to  certain 
premises,  a certain  result  should  follow,  therefore  it  will  inevitably 
follow;  but  he  is  not  a wise  man  who  neglects  to  test  the  truth 
of  his  theories  by  facts. 

The  two  regions,  which,  within  the  past  decade,  have  been  per- 
sistently denounced  by  these  pseudo-scientific  theorists  as  portions 
of  the  Great  American  Desert,  rainless,  treeless,  barren  and 
incapable  of  ever  being  inhabited,  are  the  regions  lying  near  the 
lOOth  meridian  west  from  Greenwich  and  westward  indefinitely, 


THE  GREA7'  AMER/CAN  DESERT:  W//ERE  IS  IT?  j5 

though  some  of  these  pessimists  admitted  that  there  might  be 
some  fertile  valleys  among  the  Rocky  Mountains ; and  second, 
the  region  from  about  the  107th  meridian  westward  to  the  1 14th. 
The  first  tract  includes  Western  Texas,  at  least  two-thirds  of  the 
Indian  Territory,  the  western  third  of  Kansas,  almost  half  of 
Nebraska,  Eastern  New  Mexico,  more  than  half  of  Colorado, 
nearly  all  of  Wyoming,  more  than  half  of  Dakota,  and  the 
whole  of  Montana.  In  regard  to  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Colo- 
rado, as  late  as  the  winter  or  early  spring  of  1879,  Mr.  Landon, 
a popular  lecturer,  better  known  to  the  public  under  his  noin  de 
plume  of  Eli  Perkins,  published  in  the  Cincinnati  Enquirer,  and 
soon  after  in  the  New  York  Sun,  the  following  article: 

LET  EMIGRANTS  WESTWARD  LOOK  OUT! 

An  awful  trap  is  being  set  for  credulous  emigrants.  Thousands  of  these 
emigrants  are  settling  west  of  the  rain  belt,  and  they  don’t  know  it.  They  are 
going  out  too  far  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  the  Kansas  Pacific, 
the  Union  Pacific,  and  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroads. 

“ Where  is  the  drought  line?  ” asks  the  reader. 

“ Draw  a line  from  Austin,  Texas,  to  Bismarck,  Minnesota,  on  the  Northern 
Pacific,  and  all  west  of  that  line  is  the  drought  country.  Five  years  out  of  eight, 
crops  will  entirely  fail  west  of  this  line.  Last  year  was  an  exception  to  the  rule, 
and  this  is  why  so  many  emigrants  are  venturing  too  far  West  this  year.  The 
land-sharks  are  deceiving  them,  and  are  pushing  a vast  army  of  emigrants  into 
a famine  region.” 

‘‘What  makes  this  region  west  of  the  looth  parallel  a desert  region?” 

“ Because  it  rains  just  as  much  water  as  there  is  water  evaporated  each  year. 
If  it  rained  more  water  than  is  evaporated,  it  would  run  down  into  the  ocean, 
and  the  land  would  soon  be  covered  with  water.  Rains  run  to  the  ocean  in 
rivers,  and  the  air  evaporates  the  water  of  the  ocean  and  carries  it  inland. 
Clouds  form  rainfalls,  and  back  goes  the  water  on  to  the  earth,  then  into  the 
ocean  again.  Now,  before  the  air  from  the  Gulf  or  ocean  reaches  Bismarck, 
or  the  middle  of  Nebraska  or  Kansas,  this  wet  air  which  started  from  the  ocean 
becomes  dry.  There  is  no  water  in  it ; the  water  has  all  fallen  out  of  it  in 
rain,  and  it  has  run  back  to  the  sea.” 

“ But  why  is  San  Antonio  subject  to  drought  when  it  is  so  close  to  the  Gulf?  ” 

“ Because  the  air  of  San  Antonio,  on  the  Staked  Plains  in  Texas,  and  in 
Arizona,  comes  up  through  Mexico.  It  is  dry  before  it  starts.  It  does  not 
come  from  the  Gulf.  Mexico  is  hot.  A perpetual  current  of  hot,  dry  air  blows 
over  Mexico  and  fans  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Utah  and  Colorado  with  atmos- 
phere as  dry  as  wind  from  the  Desert  of  Sahara.  This  dry-air  current,  blowing 


i6 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


up  from  Mexico  and  Arizona,  strikes  the  high  mountains  in  Colorado.  Here, 
in  the  centre  of  the  continent,  within  seventy-five  miles  of  Pike’s  Peak,  is  the 
source  of  the  Red,  Colorado,  Rio  Grande,  Arkansas  and  Missouri  rivers.  This 
is  the  backbone  of  North  America.  The  high,  cold  peaks  condense  any  mois- 
ture that  there  may  be  in  the  air  coming  up  from  the  south,  and  make  it  into 
snow.  Then  this  cold,  dry  air  passes  on  up  the  centre  of  the  continent,  making 
a perpetual  desert.  It  prevents  any  damp  air  from  coming  east  of  the  looth 
parallel.  When  we  reach  the  Northern  Pacific  and  Manitoba  another  current 
of  wind,  a damp  current,  blows  from  the  Pacific  Ocean.  There  is  no  desert 
there,  where  the  Pacific  wind  heads  off  the  wind  from  Mexico.  Now,  I say, 
thousands  of  innocent  emigrants  have  taken  up  farms  during  the  last  year  west 
of  the  rain  parallel.  Of  course  they  will  be  ruined,  and  you  will  see  them 
coming  back  broken-hearted  and  discouraged.” 

“ Will  it  always  be  a desert  west  of  the  looth  parallel?  ” 

“ Yes,  until  the  Almighty  changes  the  course  of  the  winds,  takes  down  the 
mountain-peaks,  and  stops  the  clouds  from  raining  all  their  water  out  in  the 
East  before  they  get  to  the  desert.” 

Ei  I Perkins. 

We  will  not  stop  here  to  notice  the  deplorable  ignorance 
manifest  in  almost  every  line  of  this  article  of  Eli  Perkins, 
ignorance  which  would  cause  any  intelligent  school-boy  of  twelve 
years  old  to  blush  with  shame,  such  as  persistently  speaking  of 
meridians  of  longitude  as  parallels ; locating  Bismarck  in 
Minnesota,  mistaking  the  longitude  of  the  places  of  which  he 
speaks,  and  contradicting  himself  by  saying  in  one  sentence  that 
the  air  which  reaches  Bismarck  is  dry,  and  there  is  no  rain  in  it, 
and  in  the  next  that  “when  we  reach  the  Northern  Pacific  and 
Manitoba,  another  current  of  wind,  a damp  current,  blows  from 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  • There-  is  no  desert  there,  where  the  Pacific 
wind  heads  off  the  wind  from  Mexico.’'  Yet  Bismarck  is  on  that 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  and  just  south  of  Manitoba.  It  would 
be  as  well  for  “ Eli  Perkins”  to  go  to  school  fora  few  months  before 
he  attempts  to  write  for  the  papers. 

But  while  it  is  almost  mathematically  proved  that  the  “ Great 
American  Desert  ” is  a myth,  receding  from  us  as  we  try  to 
approach  it,  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  here,  as  in  other  empires, 
there  arc  some  desert  lands,  treeless,  though  not  quite  rainless; 


MINERAL  AND  VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS. 


17 

often  incapable  of  cultivation,  though  they  may  be  rich  in  fossils 
or  in  the  precious  metals ; and  that  in  these  deserts  may  be 
found  some  of  the  most  wonderful  phenomena  on  the  globe. 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  whole  Region  Abounding  in  Mineral  Wealth — Production  of  Gold 
AND  Silver,  other  Metals,  etc. — Forests  — Grasses  — Root  Crops — 
Fruits — Viniculture. 

Most  of  these  States  and  Territories  abound  in  mineral 
wealth.  All  the  Territories  and  all  the  States  except  Minnesota, 
Nebraska  and  Kansas  have  either  gold  or  silver  mines  or  both, 
and  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  even  these  will  prove  to  be 
exceptions,  though  it  is  to  be  hoped  they  may;  for  agricultural 
products  furnish  a surer  and  better  avenue  to  the  prosperity  of 
the  entire  population,  than  the  richest  mines  of  the  precious 
metals.  The  golden  grain  of  these  States  is  a better  possession 
than  the  gold  mines  of  California  or  Colorado,  or  the  silver  of 
Nevada  or  Montana. 

Yet  we  would  not  underrate  the  vast  mineral  wealth  of  this 
Western  Empire.  It  is  possible,  though  not  at  all  certain,  that 
some  of  the  Peruvian  mines  or  those  of  Mexico  may  have  more 
extensive  deposits  of  gold  or  silver  than  are  already  opened,  or 
are  yet  to  be  discovered  in  the  Great  West;  but  the  production 
of  none  of  them  has  been  as  great,  in  so  short  a period,  as  that 
of  our  mines,  and  we  have  just  arrived  at  a stage  of  progress, 
when  our  production  may  be  almost  indefinitely  increased. 
During  the  first  ten  years  after  the  discovery  of  gold  and  silver 
in  California,  and  the  West,  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  with  accuracy 
the  production  of  the  precious  metals  there;  but  Professor  Rossiter 
W.  Raymond,  who  has  devoted  much  time  and  study  to  the 
problem,  names,  as  the  result  of  his  inquiries,  a sum  total  of  gold 
and  silver  which,  by  adding  the  production  of  1878  and  1879,  gives 
an  aggregate  for  the  Great  West  for  the  thirty  years  ending 


i8 


OUR  IVES'fERX  EMPIRE. 


June  30, 1879,  of  $i,947»055»S34»  almost  two  billionsof  the  precious 
metals.  By  a singular  coincidence  these  are  very  nearly  the 
amount  of  the  product  of  the  ten  principal  items  of  our  agriculture 
for  the  year  1879.  That  product  was  $1,904,480,659.  The 
completion  of  the  Sutro  tunnel  in  Nevada,  which  will  make  deep 
mining  practicable,  in  those  hitherto  productive  lodes,  and  the 
discoveries  of  carbonate  ores  of  silver  and  chlorides  or  horn 
silver  in  Utah,  in  the  San  Juan  and  Gunnison  districts  and  else- 
where, on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  Colorado, 
the  new  and  extensive  deposits  of  both  gold  and  silver  in  the 
Black  Hills,  in  Utah  and  in  Montana,  and  the  increasing  annual 
production  of  bullion,  warrant  the  belief  that  we  are  just  enter- 
ing upon  a new  era  in  the  production  of  the  precious  metals, 
which  will  far  exceed  that  of  the  combined  production  of  the 
Pacific  States  and  Australia,  twenty-five  years  ago. 

But  our  mineral  productions  in  our  Western  Empire  are  by 
no  means  confined  to  gold  and  silver.  Quicksilver,  which  is  an 
absolute  necessity  for  gold  mining  the  world  over,  is  more 
abundant  in  California,  Nevada  and  Arizona  than  anywhere  else 
in  the  world,  and  though,  in  the  past,  tedious  litigation  has  pre- 
vented the  mines  from  yielding  their  full  product,  yet  not  only 
has  the  large  demand  for  our  own  mines  been  supplied,  but  we 
have  exported  millions  of  flasks  to  other  countries.  Nickel, 
platinum,  and  in  vast  quantities,  copper,  lead,  iron  and  zinc,  are 
among  the  products  of  this  young  empire ; and  coal  of  all  quali- 
ties is  scattered  in  localities  where  it  is  most  needed. 

Portions  of  this  W estern  Empire  are  lacking  in  forest  growths. 
The  vast  prairies  and  plains  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  had 
been  so  often  burned  over  by  the  Indians,  either  carelessly  or 
to  promote  the  growth  of  the  grasses,  on  which  the  buffalo,  their 
principal  game,  fed,  that  though  in  times  long  ago  they  were 
covered  with  heavy  forests,  they  seemed  to  have  lost  their  ability 
to  sustain  any  large  amount  of  timber.  Only  near  the  banks  of 
streams  was  there  any  considerable  growth  of  trees,  and  these, 
in  some  sections,  only  the  comparatively  worthless  cottonwood. 
But  this  deficiency  will  soon  pass  away.  Encouraged  by  the 
Timber  culture  act  of  Congress,  and  by  the  desire  to  produce 


M/A'ERAL  AND  VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS. 


19 


trees  instead  of  sending  great  distances  for  lumber,  millions  of 
trees  have  been  planted,  largely  of  the  rapidly  growing  kinds,  as 
the  ailantus,  locust,  Osage  orange,  etc.;  and  even  on  the  alkaline 
plains  they  are  growing  and  thriving,  and  have  already  increased 
to  a sensible  extent  the  amount  of  the  scanty  rainfall.  But  only 
a portion  of  the  region  lying  between  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains  can  be  called  treeless.  In  Minnesota,  Dakota, 
Montana,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  parts  of  Texas  and  the  Indian 
Territory,  there  are  vast  tracts  of  heavy  timber,  and  the  lumber 
exported  from  some  of  these  States  forms  a very  considerable 
portion  of  their  productive  wealth.  West  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains there  is  generally  no  lack  of  forests,  especially  on  the 
mountain  slopes;  Utah,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  are,  however, 
but  sparingly  supplied  with  timber,  and  much  of  the  land  suffers 
from  drought  except  where  irrigation  is  possible.  On  the  Pacific 
slope,  portions  of  California  and  Nevada,  all  of  Western  Oregon 
and  Washington  are  remarkable  for  the  gigantic  height  and  bulk 
of  their  forest  trees.  The  Redwoods  and  Sequoias,  which  range 
from  300  to  475  feet  in  height,  are  not  the  only  giants  of  these 
forests ; several  species  of  pine  and  fir  and  some  of  the  cedars 
tower  from  250  to  350  feet  in  height  on  the  lower  hills  of  the 
Coast  range,  in  California,  Oregon  and  Washington.  In  Eastern 
Washington  and  Oregon  there  are  extensive,  elevated  plains, 
without  much  timber,  which  are  very  cold  in  winter  and  intensely 
hot  in  summer.  In  Wyoming  and  Colorado  the  mountains  are 
generally  clothed  with  forests,  up  to  a point  somewhat  below 
the  snow  line ; but  the  plains,  plateaux  and  foothills  are  very 
often  devoid  of  trees,  except  along  the  water-courses,  or  where 
they  have  been  planted  by  man. 

Over  much  of  this  vast  territory,  nearly  all  of  it  beyond  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  alkaline  plains  east  of  that  range, 
there  is  little  or  nothing  which  can  be  called  sod;  the  long,! 
dry  summers  would  destroy  it  if  it  existed.  But  the  buffalo 
and  gramma  grasses,  more  nutritious  than  our  cultivated  grasses, 
are  adapted  to  the  summer  drought,  and  furnish  all  the  year 
round  a most  delicious  pasturage  for  cattle.  The  bunch  grass, 
and  the  white  sage-brush  (after  frost),  are  eagerly  cropped. 


20 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


Wherever,  as  in  California,  Nevada,  and  portions  of  New 
Mexico,  the  cultivation  of  grasses  for  feeding  cattle  has  been 
found  desirable,  the  Alfalfa  grass,  a species  of  South  American 
lucerne,  which  yields  two  or  three  enormous  crops  a year,  and 
is  admirably  adapted  to  this  climate,  furnishes  at  small  expense 
a succulent  and  nutritious  food  for  cattle  and  sheep.  There 
are  also  other  forage  grasses,  most  of  them  native  to  the  coast, 
which  amply  supply  the  absence  of  our  sod-making  grasses  in 
the  Atlantic  States. 

In  the  season  of  melting  snows,  and  moderate  rains,  these 
desolate  and  dreary  plains  are  resplendent  with  flowers  of  every 
hue,  and  many  of  them  redolent  of  the  sweetest  perfumes. 

The  root  crops  of  this  entire  region  are  remarkable  alike 
for  their  abundance,  the  great  size  they  attain,  and  their  ex- 
cellent quality.  In  the  deep,  rich,  and  easily  penetrated  soil  of 
all  these  States  and  Territories  root  crops  seem  to  run  riot, 
and  grow  without  stint.  The  common  potato,  the  sweet  potato 
and  the  yam,  yield  from  400  to  600  bushels  to  the  acre,  and 
are,  perhaps,  the  most  profitable  crops  which  can  be  raised. 
Turnips,  both  yellow  and  white,  carrots,  beets,  etc.,  yield  fabulous 
. quantities  of  such  gigantic  size  that  they  are  hardly  recognizable. 
The  whole  melon  tribe,  including  the  pumpkin,  squash,  and 
cucumber,  as  well  as  the  watermelon,  muskmelon,  cantelope, 
and  citron-melon  exhibit  their  greatest  fertility  and  most  abun- 
dant productiveness  in  the  most  arid  and  desert-looking  of  these 
lands.  Arizona,  Southern  California,  the  southern  part  of  New 
Mexico,  and  Western  Texas,  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  these 
creeping  vines  and  their  cooling  fruits. 

This  Great  West  is  destined  to  be  the  garden  of  the  world, 
in  its  cultivation  and  conservation  of  edible  fruits  and  their 
products.  Its  great  variety  of  climates  and  temperatures,  and 
the  elevation  of  its  arable  lands,  even  in  semi-tropical  regions, 
permits,  and  will  continue  to  permit  and  demand,  the  produc- 
tion of  the  greatest  variety  of  choice  fruits  to  be  found  in  any 
one  region  on  the  earth’s  surface.  In  the  northern  portion,  the 
apples,  pears,  quinces,  plums,  cherries,  and  small  fruits  of  Min- 
nesota, Dakota,  Montana,  Idaho,  Washington,  Oregon  and 


MINERAL  AND,  VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS.  2 1 

Northern  California  are  unsurpassed  either  in  size  or  flavor  by 
those  of  any  other  part  of  the  world.  It  has  been  asserted  that 
the  larger  fruits  of  California,  as  well  as  its  vegetables,  though 
of  great  size,  lack  the  succulency  and  fine  flavor  of  those  raised 
in  the  Eastern  States,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
this  is  true.  Fruits  carried  to  great  distances  from  their  native 
soil,  and  kept  for  months  or  years,  do  lose  something  of  their 
flavor,  as  is  well  known ; but  eaten  where  they  are  grown,  they 
are  unsurpassed  in  excellence.  The  belt  below  this,  consisting 
of  the  States  of  Iowa,  Missouri,  Southern  Dakota,  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,  Wyoming,  Northern  Colorado,  Utah,  Nevada  and 
Central  California,  adds  to  this  list  the  peach,  the  apricot,  and, 
above  all,  the  grape;  Already  California  is  more  largely  en- 
gaged in  the  culture  of  the  vine  than  any  other  country  in  the 
world.  Every  known  species  and  variety  which  possesses  merit 
is  grown  there,  and  though  her  great  vineyards  are  so  young, 
she  is  only  second  to  France  in  the  amount  of  her  wine  produc- 
tion. Nowhere  can  finer  “ raisins  of  the  sun  ” be  produced  than 
there.  Her  peaches  are  excellent,  but  not  so  much  attention 
has  been  given  to  their  culture,  as  in  other  regions. 

The  whole  belt  of  States  and  Territories  we  have  named  are 
capable  of  a like  development  in  viniculture  with  California. 
Their  grapes  may  have  a slightly  different  flavor,  and  the  wines 
produced  from  them  may  be  as  distinguishable,  by  the  cultivated 
taste  of  the  connoisseur,  as  those  of  Tokay  and  Xeres  or 
Rheims ; but  they  will  be  in  as  great  demand  as  the  wines  of 
the  Californian  vintage. 

Farther  south,  in  Arkansas,  the  Indian  Territory,  Texas, 
Arizona,  Southern  New  Mexico,  Southern  Utah  and  Nevada, 
and  Southern  California,  sub-tropical  fruits  abound — the  orange, 
lemon,  lime,  fig,  olive,  pomegranate,  banana,  guava,  Madeira  nut, 
pecan,  and  the  finest  and  most  luscious  varieties  of  the  peach, 
are  some  of  the  treasures  which  Dame  Nature  lays  up  for  her 
children  in  the  sunny  South.  There  are  also  many  native  fruits 
and  nuts,  less  widely  known,  but  not  less  delicious  or  grateful  to 
the  taste,  than  those  we  have  named,  to  be  found  in  the  forests 
of  the  Great  West. 


22 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Wild  Animals  and  Game — Beasts  of  Prey — Grizzly  and  other  Bears— 
Mr.  Murphy’s  Grizzly  Bear  Story — The  Cougar,  Puma,  or  Panther — 
The  Jaguar  and  other  Felid^ — Lynxes — The  Marten  and  Weasel  Tribe 
— The  Gray  Wolf — The  Coyote — Amphibia — The  Whale  Tribe — Birds 
OF  Prey — Perchers  and  Song  Birds — Pigeons  and  Grouse — Waders  and 
Swimmers — Reptiles — Fishes — Mollusks  and  Crustaceans — Domestic 
Animals. 

Many  of  the  wild  animals  of  our  Western  Empire  are  peculiar 
to  that  region.  The  Bison  or  American  buffalo,  whose  range 
extended  originally  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Appala- 
chians, has  for  these  many  years  past  been  only  found  west  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  as  settlement  and  civilization  advanced  west- 
ward he  has  been  driven  back  to  the  plains  and  foothills  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  a tract  of  not  more  than  three  hundred  miles 
in  width,  and  perhaps  twelve  hundred  in  length  from  north  to 
south,  and  even  this  was  encroached  upon  every  year  by  the  new 
towns  springing  up  all  along  the  line.  'Since  the  advent  of 
railroads,  crossing  these  plains,  the  number  of  bison  has  rapidly 
diminished.  Many  thousands  were  shot  from  the  cars  for  fun, 
and  left  to  die  on  the  plains  ; hunters  destroyed  tens  of  thousands 
for  mere  sport.  More  than  as  many  more  were  slaughtered  for 
the  hams  and  tongues,  and  the  Indians  killed  from  one  to  two 
millions  annually  for  the  flesh,  and  the  robes  or  skins.  It  is  es- 
timated that  within  the  past  ten  years,  not  less  than  twenty  mil- 
lions of  these  noble  animals  have  been  slain,  and  that  hardly 
more  than  300,000  remain.  The  bison  is  not  found  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains."^'  The  moose,  though  plentiful  in  British 

* Colonel  Richard  J.  Dodge,  United  States  Army,  a famous  hunter,  speaks  of  another  species, 
cr  at  least  a well-marked  variety  of  the  buffalo,  known  to  hunters  as  the  mountain  or  wood 
buffalo,  or  “ the  bison.”  It  has  shorter  but  stouter  legs  than  the  common  buffalo,  is  very  shy, 
and  by  no  means  plentiful  even  in  its  chosen  haunts,  and  inhabits  only  the  deepest,  darkest 
defiles  and  canons,  or  the  craggy  and  almost  precipitous  sides  of  mountains,  from  which  it  will 
not  depart,  while  its  congener  prefers  the  plains.  Except  in  one  instance,  no  sportsman  has 
bagged  more  than  one,  but  its  existence  is  well  vouched  for,  though,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  it 
has  never  been  described  by  any  other  writer. 


EOCKY  MOUNTAIN  GOAT,  ELK,  RED  DEER,  BLACK  BEAR,  FOX,  MOOSE,  WOLF,  PANTHER, 
GRIZZLY  BEAR,  COYOTE,  PRAIRIE  DOG,  WILD  CAT,  BUFFALO,  WILD  HORSE. 


ZOOLOGY  OF  OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


23 


Columbia  and  Alaska,  is  only  found  in  the  region  in  the  northern 
part  of  Washington  Territory,  in  Northern  Idaho,  and  Montana. 

The  Elk,  the  next  largest  of  the  game  animals  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  has  nearly  the  same  range  as  the  Buffalo, 
though  it  usually  seeks  the  vicinity  of  the  river  valleys.  It  is  less 
abundant  than  the  bison,  but  has  only  partially  escaped  the  indis- 
criminate slaughter  to  which  those  unfortunate  animals  have  been 
subjected.  They  are  often  found  in  large  numbers  (three  or  four 
thousand  it  is  said)  in  the  great  parks  of  Colorado,  and  in  Mon- 
tana. 

There  are  three  species  of  deer,  the  black-tailed,  white-tailed, 
and  mule  deer;  and  at  least  one  species  of  antelope,  a graceful, 
beautiful  creature.  West  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  there  is  a 
representative  of  the  Ibex  family  in  the  Bighorn  or  mountain 
sheep,  and'  one  of  the  goat  family — the  wild  Rocky  Mountain 
goat,  which  may,  perhaps,  be  allied  to  the  goat  antelopes  of  the 
Himalaya  Mountains.  Of  smaller  four-footed  game  and  rodents, 
there  are  six  or  eight  species  of  hare  and  rabbits,  one  bearing 
the  name  of  the  Jackass  rabbit,  from  the  enormous  length  of  its 
ears;  the  beaver,  musk  rat  and  mammoth  mole;  squirrels  of 
ten  species,  five  of  gophers  or  prairie  dogs,  the  yellow-haired 
porcupine,  four  species  of  kangaroo  mice,  the  usual  variety  of 
moles,  rats,  mice  and  dormice. 

Of  beasts  of  prey  there  are  a considerable  number,  and  some 
of  them  formidable  in  size  and  strength.  There  are  probably 
two  species,  and  possibly  three,  of  bears  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains:  the  black,  the  cinnamon,  and  a smaller  brown  one, 
known  as  the  Mexican  bear."^  The  bear  is  omnivorous  in  his 
diet;  ants,  grubs,  mice,  moles,  squirrels,  rabbits,  eggs,  berries, 
grapes  and  fruit,  all  seem  alike  to  him,  but  if  he  has  a special 
vanity,  it  is  for  honey.  He  does  not  attack  man  unless  in  ex- 
treme hunger,  or  in  protecting  the  cubs:  but  if  attacked  makes 
a very  stubborn  fight,  especially  at  close  quarters.  His  claws 
are  very  sharp  and  strong.  Beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains  the 
formidable  and  somewhat  ferocious  grizzly  Tear,  the  largest 
American  plantigrade,  except  possibly  the  Arctic  or  white  bear. 


*Some  practical  zoologists  contend  that  these  are  not  difterent  species  but  simply  varieties. 


24 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


is  added  to  the  number.  The  black,  brown,  and  cinnamon  bears 
usually  avoid  a conflict  with  man  unless  attacked,  when  they 
fight  fiercely.  It  is  said  that  among  the  miners  of  Western 
Colorado,  a class  of  men  not  lacking  in  courage  or  pluck,  when 
some  new-comer,  ambitious  to  show  his  prowess,  proposes  to  go 
out  and  hunt  the  bears,  which  are  very  numerous  there,  the 
shrewd  old  miner,  who  is  well  versed  in  bear  nature,  will  reply  : 
“Guess  not;  I haven’t  lost  any  bear.”  The  grizzly  bear,  espe- 
cially if  hungry,  is  not  wont  to  wait  for  a provocation  to  a fight, 
and  he  possesses  so  thick  a hide  and  so  much  vitality,  that  it  is 
very  difficult  to  disable  or  kill  him  by  even  two  or  three  well- 
aimed  shots.  When  wounded  his  rage  is  fearful,  and  his  long 
and  strong  claws  enable  him  to  make  very  short  work  of  an 
antagonist  who  comes  within  reach  of  them."^ 

The  cougar,  puma  or  panther,  sometimes  called  the  American 
Hon,  Is  another  very  formidable  animal ; somewhat  smaller  than 
the  African  Hon  or  the  Bengal  tiger.  It  has  as  much  ferocity  and 
almost  as  much  strength  as  either.  It  Is,  however,  cowardly  like 


Mr.  J.  M.  Murphy,  in  his  “ Sporting  Adventures  in  the  Far  West,”  devotes  one  chapter  to 
the  grizzly  bear,  and  relates  some  very  humorous  stories  of  experiences  in  hunting  it.  Formid- 
able and  ferocious  as  it  is,  the  grizzly  is  terrified  by  the  human  voice,  when  loud  yells  and  cries 
are  uttered,  and  will  run  away  at  once.  Mr.  Murphy  says  that  a certain  judge  of  San  Francisco, 
who,  while  a good  hunter  and  a capital  humorist,  was  of  somewhat  intemperate  habits,  had  en- 
gaged with  a few  friends  to  go  out  for  a week’s  shooting  among  the  grouse  and  quail,  and  was 
asked  to  be  ready  to  join  the  party  at  a very  early  hour  in  the  morning,  so  that  a camping  place 
could  be  reached  in  the  afternoon.  The  night  before  starting  he  attended  a ball  and  became  so 
much  intoxicated  that  on  his  way  home  he  fell  down  several  times  in  the  mire,  much  to  the 
detriment  of  his  evening  dress  and  opera  hat.  Just  after  reaching  home  the  carriage  came  to 
take  him  to  the  rendezvous,  and  he  insisted  on  going  in  the  plight  he  was  in.  After  some  re- 
monstrance he  was  taken  as  he  was,  and  the  party  travelled  to  the  mountains  about  forty  miles 
distant,  pitched  camp  and,  building  a fire,  prepared  for  supper.  A Spaniard  approached  them 
and  said  that  there  was  a grizzly  a few  rods  off  in  the  bushes.  The  judge,  who  was  dozing  near 
the  fire,  roused  up  at  once  and  said  that  he  would  go  and  bring  it  into  the  camp.  His  com- 
panions laughed  at  him  and  chaffed  him,  but  his  temper  was  roused,  and  seizing  an  empty  shot- 
gun, he  said  he  would  prove  his  assertion,  and  strode  off  into  the  shrubbery.  In  about  twenty 
minutes  there  was  a great  commotion  in  the  bushes,  and  all  the  party  seized  their  guns  and  pre- 
pared for  some  unknown  danger.  In  another  minute  the  bushes  parted  and  out  came  the  judge 
without  a hat,  and  running  with  such  speed  as  to  cause  his  hair  and  coat-tails  to  stand  out  at 
right  angles  to  his  body.  As  he  approached,  he  shouted  at  the  top  of  his  voice  : “ Clear  the 
track  ; here  we  come,  the  bear  and  me.  confound  our  souls.”  They  did  clear  the  track,  and  the 
judge  rushed  through  the  fire  and  did  not  stop  till  he  had  run  a good  half  mile  to  the  rear. 
His  companio!is  stopped  the  bear  and  caused  it  to  retreat  by  a few  yells  and  shots,  but  the  fool- 
hardy judge  was  the  butt  of  many  a joke  on  his  race  with  the  bear. 


ME  AND  THE  BAR  S COMING. 


ZOOLOGY  OF  OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


25 


all  its  tribe,  and  seldom  or  never  attacks  man  except  when  very 
hungry  or  in  defence  of  its  young.  When  attacked  it  is  a for- 
midable animal,  its  strong  claws  and  great  muscular  power 
giving  it  great  advantage.  It  is,  when  full-grown,  about  four 
feet  eight  inches  in  length,  exclusive  of  its  tail,  and  weighs  1 50 
or  160  pounds.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  forests,  and  rarely 
goes  any  great  distance  from  them.  The  jaguar  or  American 
tiger  is  also  found  in  Texas,  Arizona,  New  Mexico  and  Southern 
California.  It  is  a larger  and  perhaps  fiercer  animal  than  the 
cougar,  but  is  nowhere  abundant  and  is  not  found  at  all  north 
of  the  thirty-ninth  parallel.  A smaller,  but  equally  fierce  and 
perhaps  equally  cowardly  member  of  the  feline  family,  is  the 
catamount,  ocelot,  or  tiger-cat,*  while  the  wild  cat,  with  its  short 
blunt  tail,  and  the  lynx,  of  which  there  are  three  species — the 
Canada  lynx,  the  bay  lynx  or  red  cat,  and  the  banded  lynx — com' 
plete  the  wild  felines  of  the  region.  Of  the  marten  tribe  and  its 
congeners  there  are  many  genera  and  species.  The  marten 
proper  or  American  sable,  the  fitch  marten,  stone  marten,  wol- 
verine or  fisher,  two  species  of  skunk,  the  mink,  the  yellow- 
cheeked weasel,  the  otter  and  sea  otter,  the  badger,  raccoon ; 
five  species  of  fox,  the  raccoon  fox  or  mountain  cat.  Next  in 
order  come  the  wolves.  The  American  large  gray,  dusky  or 
black  wolf  (all  these  distinctions  of  color  being  found  in  the 
same  species)  is  a far  less  ferocious  animal  than  his  European 
congener ; he  is  cowardly,  and  when  attacked  by  dogs  or  men 
always  tries  to  find  safety  in  flight.  There  are  not  more  than 
one  or  two  instances  known  where  these  wolves  have  attacked 
a man,  and  then  it  was  only  when  they  were  frantic  with  hunger, 
when  a large  pack  of  them  were  together,  and  when  the  man 
was  carrying  some  game.  They  are  great  thieves,  and  will 
carry  off  lambs  or  sheep,  pigs,  calves  or  young  colts,  and  when 
hunger  has  made  them  desperate,  they  will  hunt  antelopes,  deer 
and  even  the  buffalo.  Their  bite  is  very  sharp,  and  they  always 
endeavor  to  hamstring  their  prey,  if  it  is  a large  animal.  They 
are  so  destructive  to  sheep  and  young  cattle  that  great  numbers 

* This  name  is  also  given  by  some  to  the  Canada  lynx,  but  improperly,  as  all  the  lynxes 
differ  in  structure  from  the  true  cats. 


26 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


of  them  are  killed  by  poison,  usually  by  strychnine.  There  are 
a class  of  men  in  the  West  known  as  “Wolfers”  who  make  a 
special  business  of  killing  wolves,  and  selling  their  pelts,  which 
are  valuable.  This  is  a profitable  business,  but  those  who 
engage  in  it  undergo  great  privations  and  hardships,  and  they 
very  often  spend  their  hard-won  gains  in  miserable  debauchery. 

The  coyote  or  barking  wolf  is  an  intermediate  link  between 
the  gray  wolf  and  the  fox,  and  maintains  about  the  same  posi- 
tion in  this  country  which  the  hyenas  do  in  the  East.  He  is  a 
thief,  and  a mean,  cowardly,  vile-smelling  thief,  but  he  subserves 
one  useful  purpose — he  is  an  indefatigable  scavenger,  though  a 
very  dirty  and  cruel  one.  He  will  dig  up  the  bodies  of  the  dead 
and  feast  upon  them,  and  .every  animal  that  is  wounded  or  sick 
falls  a prey  to  him.  If  nothing  better  can  be  found  he  will  pray 
upon  chickens,  rats,  mice,  moles,  or  any  other  of  the  small 
rodents.  A pack  of  coyotes  have  been  known  to  attack  a 
wounded  buck  and  strip  every  bone  clean  in  ten  minutes.  They 
are  often  covered  with  sores  from  feasting  on  dead  bodies. 
Colonel  Dodge  insists  that  the  prairie  wolf  is  not  the  genuine 
coyote,  and  that  the  coyote  is  a meaner  animal  found  only  in  Texas. 

The  cetacea  of  the  Pacific  coast  include  the  right  and  Califor- 
nia gray  whale,  the  hump-back  and  fin-back,  two  beaked  whales, 
the  sperm  whale,  black  fish,  walrus,  and  three  species  of  porpoise. 
The  amphibia  are  the  sea  elephant,  three  or  four  sea  lions,  two 
species  each  of  seal  and  sea  otter. 

The  birds  of  this  vast  territory  number  more  than  500  species 
already  described,  and  many  more  discovered  but  not  yet  fully 
described.  There  are  twenty-five  species  of  climbers,  nearly 
two-thirds  of  them  wood-peckers ; more  than  forty  species  of 
birds  of  prey,  including  six  of  the  eagle  family,  twenty  hawks, 
buzzard  hawks  and  falcons  ; twelve  or  thirteen  species  of  owls  ; 
the  kino-  of  the  vultures,  as  large  as  the  condor  and  the 
lammergeier;  and  the  turkey-vulture  or  turkey-buzzard,  so 
common  in  the  South. 

Of  the  perchers,  fly-catchers,  and  grain-pluckers,  most  of  them 
song  birds,  there  are  nearly  200  species;  in  the  first  group  are 
included  crows,  ravens,  magpies,  jays,  jackdaws  and  king-fishers  ; 


ZOOLOGY  OF  OUR  lYES'J'FRN  EMPIRE. 


27 


in  the  second  and  third  groups,  fly-catchers,  several  species  ot 
humming-birds,  swallows,  wax-wings,  shrikes,  tanagers,  robins 
and  thrushes,  wrens,  chickadees,  grosbeaks,  finches,  linnets, 
orioles,  larks  and  sparrows. 

The  pigeon  family  have  five  or  six  representatives,  including 
the  California  and  the  band-tailed  pigeon,  the  ring,  the  turtle  and 
the  ground  doves.  There  are  probably  two  species  of  pheasant. 

, The  grouse  family  are  numerous,  and  include  blue  grouse,  ruffed 
grouse,  the  sage  hen,  which  feeds  upon  the  sage-brush  of  the 
alkaline  lands  and  whose  flesh  though  tender  is  very  bitter;  the 
prairie  hen,  at  least  five  species  of  quail,  two  of  partridges,  and 
three  or  four  species  of  ptarmigan.  There  are  more  than  sixty 
species  of  waders,  including  cranes,  herons,  bitterns,  ibises,  flam- 
ingoes, plover,  kill-deer,  avocets,  English  snipe,  jack-snipe,  sand- 
pipers, curlews,  rails,  rice-birds,  etc.,  etc.  The  swimmers  are  still 
more  numerous,  over  one  hundred  species  having  been  described, 
including  many  species  of  geese,  which  frequent  the  lakes  and 
broader  streams,  brants,  teal  of  at  least  a dozen  species,  as  many 
of  ducks,  the  canvas-back  being  found  in  great  numbers  in  his 
best  estate,  scooters,  coots,  sheldrakes,  mergansers,  pelicans,  cor 
morants,  albatrosses,  fulmars,  petrels,  gulls,  terns,  loons,  dippers, 
auks,  sea-pigeons,  and  murres. 

The  reptiles  of  the  Pacific  coast,  and  its  rivers  and  lakes,  differ 
from  those  of  the  States  and  Territories  whose  waters  drain  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  the  former  there  are  no  true  saurians 
(alligators  or  crocodiles),  except  in  the  Colorado  and  its 
affluents;  in  the  latter  the  alligator  and  probably  the  crocodile  are 
found  in  great  numbers  below  ,the  thirty-fifth  parallel.  The 
Pacific  States  and  Territories  have  five  species  of  rattlesnake, 
and  no  other  venomous  snake  unless  possibly  a viper ; while  the 
latter  have  as  many  species  of  the  rattlesnake,  and  at  least  three 
other  venomous  snakes,  and  possibly  more.  There  are  about 
thirty  species  of  harmless  snakes,  five  of  tortoises,  seven  or 
eight  land  turtles,  terrapins,  etc.;  about  forty  species  of  lizards, 
and  nearly  fifty  frogs,  toads,  horned  toads,  salamanders,  pro- 
teuses,  etc.,  etc. 

There  are  more  than  five  hundred  species  of  fish,  most  of  them 


28 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


edible  in  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  and  the  Gulf,  and  in  the  thou- 
sands of  fresh  and  salt  lakes,  and  the  numerous  rivers  of  this 
vast  region.  Among  these  are  ten  species  of  the  Salmonidae, 
native  to  the  Pacific  coast,  besides  several  others  now  naturalized; 
the  taking,  packing  and  canning  of  the  salmon  forms  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  rapidly  increasing  industries  of  Oregon  and 
Washington  Territory;  the  rivers  and  lakes  swarm  with  trout. 
Seven  or  eight  species  of  the  cod  family,  about  twenty  species  of 
eels,  ten  of  mackerel,  and  two  of  the  bonita  or  Spanish  mackerel, 
numerous  species  of  the  perch  family  and  its  congeners,  the 
blue-fish,  eight  or  nine  species  of  bass,  the  lake  white-fish  (intro- 
duced) ; three  species  of  tautog;  one,  the  red-fish,  a most  delicious 
table  fish ; about  twenty  species  of  flat-fish  and  flounders ; twelve 
species  of  shad,  herring,  anchovies,  etc.;  nearly  thirty  of  the  carp 
tribe,  weak-fish,  balloon-fish ; and  over  forty  of  the  cartilaginous 
fishes,  sharks,  rays,  sun-fish,  sturgeons,  etc.,  etc.  There  are 
seventy-five  species  of  mollusks. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Including  the  Indians  in  the  Indian  Territory,  the  Pueblos  in 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  the  Indians  employed  on  ranches 
in  California,  Nevada,  Oregon  and  Washington,  and  the  tribal 
Indians  on  the  plains  and  elsewhere,  there  are  probably  not  less 
than  300,000  Indians  of  all  races  in  the  Great  West. 

These  Indians  are  of  many  tribes,  and  their  languages,  habits 
and  modes  of  life  differ  materially.  A comparatively  small 
number  evidently  belong  to  two  of  the  races  which  preceded 
the  North  American  Indian  on  this  continent.  The  Pueblos  of 
New  Mexico,  who  are  also  found  in  small  numbers  in  Arizona, 
have  their  name  from  their  practice  of  living  in  towns  or  villages, 
pueblo  being  the  Mexican  name  for  a town  or  village.  They 
live  in  adobe  houses,  cultivate  the  soil,  and  though  in  secret 
idolaters,  are  outwardly  obedient  to  the  priests,  and  devout 
Catholics.  They  are  a quiet,  patient,  good-tempered  race,  evidently 
Aztec,  and  having  no  other  affinity  with  the  American  Indians 
than  their  color  and  hair.  There  are  several  villages  in  Arizona, 


EAaLE,  VULTURE,.  HAWK,  PHEASANT,  PTARMIGAN,  CALIFORNIA  PARTRIDGE. 
PRAIRIE  HEN,  TURKEY,  FLAMINGO,  CRANE,  IBIS,  SWAN,  GOOSE,  DUCKS. 


THE  RACES  AND  NATIONS  OE  THE  GREAT  WEST 


29 


T^ew  Mexico  and  Colorado,  of  the  cliff-dwellers,  or  Moquis,  a 
still  earlier  race,  of  which  they  seem  to  be  the  only  survivors. 
Their  dwellings  are  hewn  in  the  perpendicular  rocks  of  some 
mesa  or  butte,  or  crown  its  height,  and  are  only  accessible  by 
ladders  or  rude  rock  stairways.  Their  cattle  and  sheep  occupy 
usually  only  the  top  of  the  mesa,  and  here  were  constructed  also 
large  reservoirs  for  water,  which  they  use  for  themselves  and 
their  cattle.  They  are  engaged  in  manufactures  as  well  as  in 
agriculture,  and  their  blankets,  their  cordage,  their  bread  manu- 
factured in  thin  sheets  from  the  blue  corn  which  they  cultivate, 
their  ornaments,  etc.,  are  very  curious.  They  are  as  much 
advanced  in  civilization  as  the  Peruvians  of  South  America,  and 
possibly  belong  to  the  same  race."^ 

In  the  Indian  Territory,  the  tribes  removed  thither  from 
Georgia,  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  in  1 832  and  1 833,  the  Cherokees, 
Choctaws,  Creeks,  Chickasaws  and  Seminoles,  have  farms  and 
good  dwellings,  and  show  no  disposition  to  lead  a nomadic  life. 
Of  the  other  fifteen  or  sixteen  tribes  or  fractions  of  tribes,  now 
occupying  portions  of  the  Territory,  some  are  becoming  ac- 
customed to  the  herdsman’s  life  and  seem  contented ; others  do 


* Very  few  of  our  explorers  or  tourists  have  visited  these  singular  and  interesting  people  in 
their  rocky  fastnesses.  Among  the  few  are  Prof.  J.  S.  Newberry,  now  of  the  Columbia  College 
School  of  Mines,  and  an  eminent  scientist,  Colonel  J.  W.  Powell,  the  pioneer  explorer  of  the 
Rio  Colorado,  and  General  J.  C.  Fremont.  They  are  certainly  a much  more  intelligent  and 
highly  civilized  people  than  any  of  the  Indian  tribes  now  existing  on  this  continent,  and  in  all 
probability  are  the  remnants  of  a race  which  preceded  the  Aztecs,  the  inhabitants  of  Mexico 
when  that  country  was  first  discovered.  Their  cliff  dwellings  exhibit  remarkable  architectural 
skill,  and  their  religious  ceremonies,  of  which  Colonel  Powell  has  given  a most  interesting 
account  in  Scribner's  Monthly,  while  very  singular,  indicate  their  origin  frbm  one  of  the  primitive 
races  of  Northwestern  Asia.  They  are  generally  regarded  as  fire-worshippers,  but  like  the 
Parsees,  their  worship  seems  to  have  been  symbolical,  and  to  have  regarded  fire  and  the  sun,  the 
great  source  of  fire,  as  only  the  symbols  of  the  creating  and  vivifying  power  which  pervades  all 
nature.  Their  manufactures  were  rude,  but  the  products  were  of  great  excellence.  We  have 
ourselves  seen  a blanket,  which  Prof.  Newberry  obtained  from  them,  woven  from  the  wool  or 
curly  hair  of  their  sheep  or  goats,  and  into  which  when  suspended  by  its  four  corners,  three 
pailsful  of  water  were  emptied,  and  after  nearly  a half-hour  the  under  surface  was  not  moist  in 
the  slightest  degree.  Their  ornaments  of  gold,  silver  and  copper  displayed  a high  degree  of 
artistic  skill.  Their  bread,  made  from  the  maize  of  different  colors,  red,  blue,  yellow,  white,  etc., 
which  they  cultivate,  pounded  into  meal  in  a mortar  and  made  into  a thin  paste,  when  baked  was 
no  thicker  than  writing  paper,  each  sheet  being  about  fourteen  by  eighteen  inches,  and  folded  so 
that  the  pile  of  edible  sheets  resembled  a ream  of  blue  or  colored  paper.  In  these  villages  four  or  five 
languages  are  spoken,  none  of  them  bearing  any  known  relation  to  those  of  the  other  Indians. 


30 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


not  take  kindly  to  even  partial  civilization,  and  are  restless  and 
uneasy.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  Comanches,  the  few 
Apaches  who  are  in  the  Territory,  and  some  of  the  later  comers, 
as  the  Cheyennes,  Arapahoes  and  Poncas.  The  nomadic  Indians, 
though  of  many  tribes  and  languages,  yet  belong  for  the  most 
part  to  four  or  five  groups.  The  largest,  most  numerous,  and 
most  warlike  of  these  are  the  Dakotas  or  Sioux,  and  the 
Shoshones,  Snake  Indians  or  Utes.  In  the  former  group  are 
included  not  only  the  Unkapapas,  Tetons,  Crows,  etc.,  but  the 
Winnebagoes,  Assiniboins,  Omahas,  Poncas,  loways,  Otoes, 
Mandans  and  Minitaris.  Their  hunting  grounds  extended  from 
the  Canadian  line  through  Western  Minnesota,  Dakota,  Montana, 
Western  Iowa,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas,  and  part  of  Wyoming, 
into  Northern  Colorado.  Some  tribes  of  this  group  have  been 
almost  constantly  hostile  to  the  whites,  and  have  more  than  once 
perpetrated  terrible  massacres.  The  horrible  scenes  in  Minne- 
sota in  1862-3  were  the  work  of  the  Crows,  one  of  the  tribes 
of  this  group.  The  butchery  of  Custer’s  gallant  force  was  also 
perpetrated  by  bands  of  this  group.  Sitting  Bull  is  the  chief 
of  one  of  the  Sioux  tribes.  They  have  been  very  often  at  war 
with  the  Utes. 

The  Shoshones,  or  Snake  Indians,  very  possibly  outnumber 
the  Sioux.  They  include  not  only  the  Shoshones  proper,  in 
Oregon  and  Washington  Territories,  but  the  Bannacks,  Wihinasht, 
Comanches,  Kizht  and  Netela,  the  Modocs,  and  the  various 
tribes  of  Utes,  the  Pah  Utes,  Pi-utes,  White  River  Utes, 
Uintahs,  Uncompahgre  Utes,  etc.  Ouray  is  a chief  of  the 
Uncompahgre  * Utes,  and  Douglas  of  the  White  River  Utes. 
These  tribes  are  found  in  Oregon,  Washington,  Idaho,  Western 
Montana,  California,  Nevada,  Utah,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  and 
some  of  them  in  Northern  Texas.  Among  the  smaller  groups 
are  the  Sahaptin  or  Nez  Perces,  under  which  name  are  included 
also  the  Walla  Wallas,  Yakimas,  Pelouse  and  Klikitats  of 
Washington  and  Oregon  ; the  Selish  or  Flat-heads,  under  which 
name  are  included  the  Pend  d’  Oreilles,  the  Coeur  d’Alenes, 
Spokanes,  Piskous,  Nesk’wally,  Chehallish,  Cowlitz  and  Killa- 
mooks  or  Tillamooks  of  Idaho,  Oregon  and  Washington  ; the 


THE  RACES  AND  NATIONS  OF  THE  GREAT  WEST. 


31 


Yumas  include  the  Coco-Maricopas,  Cuchans,  Mohaves, 
Hualapais  and  Yavapais,  and  the  Dieguenos  of  Arizona ; the 
Pimas  include  the  Pima  Apaches,  the  Coyote  Apaches,  and 
other  Apache  tribes,  as  well  as  the  Pimas  proper  of  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico. 

The  number  of  “ colored  persons  of  African  descent  ” is  not  far 
from  700,000,  there  having  been  a considerable  exodus  of 
negroes  from  Mississippi,  Tennessee  and  other  Southern  States 
east  of  the  Mississippi  into  Texas,  Arkansas,  Kansas,  and 
Nebraska, 

The  number  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  now  in  all  these  States 
and  Territories  does  not  exceed  100,000  and  perhaps  not  75,000. 
It  is  more  difficult  to  determine  the  number  of  persons  of 
Hispano-American  parentage,  whether  of  the  whole  or  half- 
blood,  since,  in  Texas,  California,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Nevada 
and  perhaps  also  in  Colorado,  a considerable  number  were  of 
such  parentage,  yet  born  in  those  States  and  Territories,  before 
they  came  into  possession  of  the  United  States.  As  nearly  as 
we  can  estimate,  these  Hispano-Americans,  whether  born  in  our 
new  States  and  Territories  or  in  Mexico,  must  number  somewhat 
more  than  100,000.  Of  about  equal  number  are  the  emigrants 
born  in  British  America,  who  are  mostly  Canadian  French,  and 
in  the  Northwest,  a considerable  percentage  of  the  trappers  and 
hunters  often  of  mixed  blood,  from  the  Northwest  and  Hudson’s 
Bay  Companies. 

Asia  and  Africa  and  Australia  contribute  their  several  quotas, 
small  ones,  it  is  true,  to  make  up  the  mixed  multitude,  from  all 
lands,  who  have  flocked  hither  within  the  past  thirty  years. 

Probably  somewhat  more  than  one-half  of  the  whole  number 
were  born  in  the  United  States,  and  of  white  American  parent- 
age. Except  in  the  older  States  of  this  Western  Empire,  Mis- 
souri, Arkansas,  Texas,  Iowa,  and  California,  and  in  a smaller 
degree,  Minnesota,  Kansas,  and  Oregon  ; very  few  of  these  citi- 
zens who  have  attained  adult  age,  are  native  to  this  region,  and 
“ to  the  manor  born.”  Every  State  of  the  Union  has  contributed 
its  quota,  the  majority  in  the  Northern  and  Central  States  and 


SOCIAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 


Territories  having-  come  from  New  England  and  the  Northern 
States,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan, 
Indiana,  Illinois  and  Wisconsin  ; while  the  emigrants  to  Texas, 
Arkansas,  the  Indian  Territory,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Southern 
Colorado,  and  Utah,  and  Southern  California,  are  very  largely 
from  the  Southern  and  Southwestern  States,  though  Southern 
Illinois  has  contributed  a considerable  share  of  the  recent  emi- 
grants to  I'exas. 

CHAPTER  VL 

No  such  experiment  in  the  blending  of  the  different  races  of 
men  into  one  homogeneous  nation,  has  ever  been  attempted,  on 
a scale  so  grand  and  extensive,  as  that  now  in  progress  in  our 
Western  Empire.  Will  it  prove  a success  ? Here  we  find  the 
New  Englander,  intelligent  and  often  scholarly,  but  almost 
always  shrewd,  sharp,  and  enterprising,  cheek  by  jowl  with  the 
tall,  lank,  bilious-looking  Southern,  less  enterprising,  perhaps,  yet 
equally  sharp  in  his  way,  with  a dogged  energy,  and  often  an 
irritable  temper.  The  quick,  nervous,  impulsive,  but  capable 
New  Yorker  has  for  a partner  a dreamy  and  apparently  stolid 
German,  who  is,  nevertheless,  fully  awake  to  business  matters. 
The  quiet  but  acquisitive  Pennsylvanian  is  linked  with  a wild, 
blundering,  impulsive,  and  jovial  Irishman.  Sprigs  of  British 
aristocracy  and  British  snobs  are  found  in  all  callings,  from  the 
highest  to  the  lowest,  and  the  mercurial  Frenchman,  the  proud 
and  haughty  Spaniard,  the  dark-browed  Italian,  and  the  versa- 
tile Russian,  are  all  found  occupying,  in  apparent  harmony,  the 
same  sod-house  or  dug-out.  The  Israelite  is  everywhere,  and  at 
all  times  ready  to  turn  an  honest  penny.  Far  from  dealing 
always  in  old  clothes  “ shust  as  goot  as  new,”  he  is  a banker, 
a mine  owner,  a capitalist,  or  a landed  proprietor.  In  the 
mining  regions,  especially,  this  commingling  of  different  nation- 
alities has  led  almost  to  a new  nationality,  certainly  to  a new  dia- 
lect, at  first  almost  unintelligible  to  the  new-comer,  but  very 
speedily  acquired  by  a few  weeks’  residence.  Every  man  has  his 
title,  generally  applied  with  considerable  shrewdness  and  appropri- 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


33 


ateness,  but,  except  in  rare  instances,  retained  as  long  as  he  re- 
mains in  the  region.  Very  few  rank  as  low  as  “Captain”  or 
“ Major,”  though  the  latter  has  some  currency ; but  “ Colonel”  or 
“Commodore”  are  the  most  usual  titles,  while  in  a few  instances, 
where  neither  the  military  nor  naval  appellation  seems  appropriate, 
a man  is  recognized  as  “Jedge”  (Judge).  “John  Phoenix”  (the 
late  Lieutenant  G.  H.  Derby)  gives  a laughable  illustration  of  this 
practice,  almost  thirty  years  ago,  in  California,  where  he  relates, 
that  going  on  board  ship,  for  the  long  return  voyage  round  the 
Horn,  and  being  very  much  depressed  from  the  fact  that  he  had  no 
friends  to  accompany  him  to  the  ship,  and  wish  him  ''bon  voyage'' 
as  all  the  rest  seemed  to  have,  he  at  last,  just  as  the  ship  was 
moving  off,  lifted  his  hat  in  desperation  and  called  out  to  some 
make-believe  friend  in  the  crowd  on  shore,  “ Good-bye,  Colonel.” 
In  an  instant,  he  said,  hundreds  of  hats  were  in  the  air,  and  the 
shout  rang  out  in  reply  from  hundreds  of  throats:  “Good-bye, 
Colonel.”  But  the  slang  expressions  of  this  mining  dialect  are 
too  numerous  to  be  recorded.  New-comers  are  “Tender-feet;” 
a dead  man  has  “ passed  in  his  checks ; ” one  who  has  been 
killed  in  a brawl  or  street-fight  “ died  with  his  boots  on.”  A 
man  who  is  both  liberal  and  just,  “pans  out  well one  who  has 
excited  the  displeasure  of  his  “ pards  ” (associates  or  fellow- 
workers)  is  “off  color.”  If  a man  shows  pluck  or  grit  under 
adverse  circumstances  he  “ has  got  sand.”  Earth  or  gravel 
containing  considerable  free  gold  is  subjected  to  the  “ panning” 
process,  with  good  results.  A vein  of  gold  or  silver,  yielding 
largely  at  first  but  gradually  becoming  smaller  as  the  rocky 
walls  come  closer  together,  is  said  to  “ peter  out,”  and  a man  of 
large  pretensions,  but  of  gradually  diminishing  performance,  has 
the  same  epithet  applied  to  him.  A ravine  is  a “gulch;”  a pool 
of  water  at  the  bottom  of  a mine,  a “ sumph.” 

Bad  whiskey  is  “ tarantula  juice  ; " prospectors  who  are  igno- 
rant of  their  business  and  disposed  to  grumble  are  '' grub er- 
yrubbers and  when  they  make  a precarious  livelihood  from 
what  game  they  can  kill  with  old  squirrel  rifles,  they  are  said  to 
“live  on  snaps','  the  snaps  of  the  rifles  which  did  not  bring  down 
any  game.  A new-comer  speaks  of  the  large-heartedness  of 


34  SOCIAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 

some  of  the  miners  he  has  met,  and  the  reply  is:  “Yes,  there’s  a 
good  many  of  them  big-hearted  fellers  in  this  country.  You  see 
them  small-souled  cusses  takes  too  much  widgation  to  bring  'em 
out.  They’ve  just  got  to  git  up  and  git.”  The  word  “irrigate,” 
which  in  this  expression  has  manifest  reference  to  the  results  of 
irrigation  in  producing  immense  crops  on  the  arid  lands,  has  also 
another  signification  in  the  West.  “ Stranger,”  said  a rough- 
looking miner  to  a clerical-looking  gentleman,  in  one  of  the  Con- 
cord coaches,  “do  you  irrigate?”  producing  at  the  same  time  a 
bottle.  “ If  you  mean  to  ask  whether  I drink,  sir,  I do  not,”  was 
the  dignified  reply.  “Stranger,  have  you  any  objection  to  our 
irrigating  ?”  was  the  next  question.  “ No,  sir,”  was  the  reply. 
After  the  irrigation  had  been  completed,  the  miner,  who  after- 
ward turned  out  to  be  a large  mine-owner,  propounded  a second 
question.  “Stranger,  do  you  fumigate?”  “If  you  mean  to  ask 
do  I smoke,  sir,  I do  not.”  “ Well,,  stranger,  do  you  object  to 
our  fumigating?”  “No,  sir;  certainly  not,”  was  the  prompt 
reply.  It  should  be  added  to  this  story  that  at  their  journey’s 
end,  when  the  clergyman,  a day  or  two  later,  called  for  his  hotel 
bill,  he  was  told  that  it  had  been  paid  by  the  miner,  who  had 
thus  manifested  his  respect  for  his  manly  refusal  to  indulge  in 
drinkinof  or  smoking. 

This  mining  and  herding  dialect  seems  to  be  a conglomerate 
in  which  many  Spanish  and  Mexican  words  are  mingled  with 
Indian  terms,  Chinese  “ pigeon-talk,”  Chinook,  Eastern  and 
Southern  Americanisms,  and  perhaps  mining  terms  and  phrases 
from  Great  Britain  and  the  continent.  It  is  astonishing  that  a 
dialect,  so  utterly  void  of  rules  or  system,  can  be  acquired  so 
rapidly.  In  one-tenth  the  time  required  for  the  acquisition  of 
any  regular  well-organized  language,  any  one  will  acquire  this 
outrageous  dialect  and  become  thoroughly  proficient  in  it. 

The  herdsmen  and  shepherds,  and  in  many  cases  their  em 
ployers  also,  are  as  rough  as  the  miners  in  their  language  and 
dress.  It  is  not  uncomnion  to  find  among  these  rough,  unkempt 
and  mud-bespattered  men,  graduates  from  our  Eastern  universi- 
ties and  colleges,  men  who  have  enjoyed  all  the  amenities  oi  the 
most  refined  society,  but  who,  discarding  all  conventionalities, 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


have  chosen  to  live  thus  roughly  and  uncouthly.  In  some  in- 
stances sons  of  English  peers,  themselves  graduates  from  Oxford 
•or  Cambridge,  have  followed  the  same  course.  A correspondent 
of  the  New  York  Tribune  relates  that  he  found  in  Leadville,  in 
a building,  half  tent  and  half  shanty,  occupied  by  a miner  and 
his  family,  a Steinway  grand  piano,  perfectly  in  tune,  a choice 
and  well-selected  library,  and  both  in  charge  of  a lady  as  refined 
and  accomplished  as  could  be  met  with  in  the  best  circles  in  our 
great  cities,  and  these  luxuries  of  civilization  had  been  brought 
thither  when  the  freight  by  ox  or  mule-team  from  the  nearest 
railroad  station,  then  eighty  or  a hundred  miles  away,  was  fifty 
cents  a pound. 

Among  all  classes  the  American  fondness  for  humorous  exag- 
geration crops  out.  A miner  will  tell  a stranger,  with  a per- 
fectly serious  face,  that  a mine  of  very  small  promise  has  “millions 
in  it,”  and  perhaps  in  the  next  breath,  examining  a choice  speci- 
men of  ore,  he  will  throw  it  from  him  contemptuously,  declaring 
that  it  won’t  yield  more  than  iio  per  cent,  of  pure  silver.  He 
will  describe  to  another,  with  a face  beaming  with  pity,  “ how 
discouraged  the  miners  were,  because  they  had  to  dig  through 
four  feet  of  solid  silver  before  they  could  get  at  the  gold ; ” or 
when  the  large  yield  of  silver  is  spoken  of,  he  will  say : “ Pshaw! 
that  is  of  no  account;  there  is  a man  down  in  Iowa  that  has  in- 
vented a process  for  making  silver  for  fifty  dollars  a ton  ; so  that 
is  no  good.”  This  same  tendency  to  exaggeration  is  sometimes 
acquired  by  our  English  cousins  after  a short  residence  here. 
“ Haven’t  you  any  larger  happles  than  those  here?”  inquired  a 
cockney  tourist  of  a market  woman  in  Washington  market,  New 
York,  pointing  to  a huge  watermelon.  “ Can’t  you  do  hany  better 
than  that?”  “Happles!”  retorted  the  market  woman,  herself 
of  English  birth.  “ Hanybody  would  know  you  was  Hinglish. 
Them  hain’t  happles  ; them’s  huckleberries  ! ” 

The  farmers  are  not  as  rough  or  rude  in  their  mode  of  life  as 
the  herdsmen,  shepherds  or  miners  ; though  at  first,  on  the  fron- 
tier, the  luxuries  of  society,  whether  in  habitation,  equipment, 
dress,  or  table  fare,  are  neglected,  and  only  the  necessaries  of 
Jife  are  sought. 


COLONIES  AND  LARGE  ESTATES. 


36 

Yet  it  is  the  testimony  of  ladies  of  the  highest  character  who 
have  penetrated  into  these  mining  hamlets,  or  the  sheep  or  cattle 
ranches,  that  nowhere  in  the  wide  world  have  they  been  treated 
with  more  courtesy,  deference  and  respect,  than  among  these 
apparently  rough  men.  Miss  Isabella  L.  Bird,  an  English  lady 
of  high  social  position  and  adventurous  spirit,  whose  “A  Lady’s 
Life  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  ” is  a most  charming  record  of 
actual  adventures  in  Colorado,  found  that  even  a noted  outlaw 
and  brigand,  known  as  “Rocky  Mountain  Jim,”  manifested  in 
his  conduct  toward  women,  the  intelligence,  chivalry  and  refine- 
ment of  a gentleman. 

In  almost  all  the  States  and  Territories  of  this  western  region 
there  are  numerous  colonies,  where  a body  of  settlers,  bound 
together  by  the  ties  of  common  race  or  nationality,  community 
of  religious  faith,  the  desire  of  prosecuting  a common  avocation 
or  pursuit,  or,  in  some  instances,  from  mere  neighborhood,  or 
general  similarity  of  views,  or  from  being  natives  of  the  same 
State  at  the  East,  have  purchased  a tract  of  land  in  common,  and 
• founded  a colony,  or  settling  on  adjacent  lands  by  mutual  agree- 
ment, have  become  helpful  to  each  other,  and  thus  enjoyed  the 
advantages  of  a colony  without  the  difficulties  incidental  to  a 
colonial  organization.  Many  of  these  colonies  have  proved  very 
successful,  a few  as  conspicuously  unsuccessful.  Lour  or  five 
adopted  at  first  the  principle  of  a community  of  lands,  and  per- 
haps of  goods,  but  all  or  nearly  all  have  subsequently  abandoned 
it.  In  the  regions  where  irrigation  is  required,  some  of  the 
colonies  made  their  canals  and  ditches  the  property  of  the  whole 
colony,  and  each  individual  who  used  the  water  paid  a water- 
rate  ; others  had  them  constructed  by  a company,  and  those  who 
used  the  water  paid  toll.  Of  the  colonies  on  a secular,  and 
partly,  perhaps,  on  a political  basis,  the  most  successful  have 
been  the  colony  of  Greeley,  in  Colorado,  founded  by  the  lamented 
Meeker,  and  its  almost  as  prosperous  neighbors,  Longmont  and 
Evans.  In  Minnesota  there  have  been  many  Scandinavian 
colonies  founded,  Swedish,  Norwegian,  and  Danish,  and  these 
often  so  near  each  other  as  to  make  considerable  tracts  Scan- 
dinavian in  character,  and  for  a time  in  speech.  These  colonies 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


37 


have  gradually  extended  into  Northeastern  Dakota.  The  Norse 
element  is  an  excellent  one  in  our  country,  for  the  Scandinavians 
are  a hardy,  frugal,  industrious,  and  thrifty  people.  In  Iowa, 
Southern  Minnesota  and  Southeastern  Dakota,  as  well  as  in 
Nebraska,  there  are  many  German  colonies,  generally  of  an  ex- 
cellent character.  In  Southeastern  and  Northeastern  Dakota, 
as  well  as  in  Manitoba,  and  still  more  in  Kansas,  the  Mennonites, 
a religious  denomination  already  known  in  the  Atlantic  States, 
Russian  by  birth,  but  of  German  origin,  have  settled  in  large 
colonies,  and  form  a valuable  addition  to  our  farming  popula- 
tion."^ In  Dakota,  and  perhaps  also  in  Kansas,  they  have  been 
accompanied  by  other  religionists  of  somewhat  similar  views, 
but  of  Sclavonic  or  Russian  origin.  These  call  themselves  simply 
“Christians,”  but  are  known  to  the  Russian  government  as  either 
Molokani  or  Shmdisti.  These  have  settled  on  lands  adjacent  to 
the  Mennonites.  In  some  of  these  States  and  Territories  there 
are  also  colonies  of  Bohemians  (Czechs),  of  Moravians,  and  we 
believe  also  of  Tyrolese  and  Swiss.  In  Southeastern  Dakota, 
Nebraska  and  Kansas  there  are  also  many  colonies  of  English 
and  Scotch,  mostly  farmers,  though  some  are  artisans.  Kansas 
has  one,  and  perhaps  more  than  one,  French  colony,  where  silk 
culture  and  the  manufacture  of  silk  has  been  carried  on,  though, 
while  awaiting  the  growth  of  the  mulberry,  and  sufficient  work  for 
their  filature,  they  have  turned  the  silk  mill  into  a cheese  factory. 
There  are  also  French  and  Hungarian  colonists  engaged  in  vini- 
culture in  California.  A considerable  colony  of  Japanese  came 
to  California  some  years  since  to  engage  in  the  culture  of  tea, 
and  perhaps  some  other  Japanese  products,  but  we  have  no  recent 
intelligence  of  their  success. 

In  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Nevada  and  Utah  there 


* Mr.  H.  J.  Van  Dyke,  Jr.,  writing  of  these  Mennonites  in  their  Manitoba  settlement,  sayi 
that  an  innkeeper  at  Winnipeg  stoutly  insisted  that  they  were  “ no  good.”  On  being  asked  his 
reason  for  such  a declaration,  he  still  persisted  that  they  were  of  no  account.  “Are  they  not 
industrious  ?”  “ Ye-es.”  “Are  they  not  thrifty?  ” “ Ye-es.”  “ Don’t  they  pay  for  what  they 

buy  promptly  ? ” “Ye-es.  But  I’ll  tell  you,  when  they  come  here,  if  any  of  them  want  to 
drink,  every  man  pays  for  his  own  liquor.  They  never  treat  the  crowd.  I don’t  think  they  are 
of  much  account.”  The  innkeeper’s  reason  would  seem  to  be  decidedly  creditable  to  the 
Mennonites. 


COLONIES  AND  LARGE  ESTATES. 


38 

are  many  associations  for  mining  purposes,  composed  entirely 
of  English  or  Scotch  capitalists,  employing  almost  exclusively 
British  miners,  and  having  their  principal  offices  in  London.  In 
Colorado,  Wyoming,  Montana,  and  Texas,  there  are  also  British 
associations  engaged  in  the  stock  business.  In  Utah,  where 
almost  three-fourths  of  the  population  are  Mormons,  and  most 
of  them  believe  in  polygamy,  while  several  thousands  of  them 
actually  practice  it,  the  Mormon  immigration  is  almost  wholly 
from  Great  Britain,  though  a small  number  come  from  the  Scan- 
dinavian countries.  As  most  of  these  immigrants  are  practical 
polygamists,  our  Government  has  recently  sought  to  restrain 
the  influx  of  such  open  violators  of  our  laws.  In  New  Mexico 
the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants,  certainly  nine-tenths,  includ- 
ing both  the  original  inhabitants  and  the  immigrants,  are  nom- 
inally or  really  members  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The 
policy  of  our  Government  is,  and  has  always  been,  opposed  tc^ 
the  entire  control  of  a State  or  Territory  by  one  sect  or  denom 
ination  alone,  inasmuch  as  perfect  freedom  of  conscience,  except 
where  it  violates  the  rights  of  others,  is  the  cardinal  principle  of 
our  national  Constitution.  Where  one  sect  is  largely  dominant 
in  a State  or  Territory,  the  rights  of  the  minority  are  almost 
invariably  invaded.  In  Utah  this  predominance  involves  also 
the  practice  of  polygamy,  which  is  an  added  violation  of  our 
national  laws;  and  in  New  Mexico  the  school  moneys  derived 
from  the  sale  of  school  lands  have  been  misdirected  by  the  Jesuits 
and  other  religious  orders,  who  have  the  entire  control  of  educa- 
tion there,  not  only  to  the  payment  of  teachers  of  theology  in 
Roman  Catholic  seminaries,  but  to  the  payment  of  the  board  of 
students  of  theology. 

So  far  as  colonies  of  Roman  Catholics  are  concerned,  they  are 
perfectly  right  and  proper,  and  very  considerable  settlements 
have  been  organized  under  the  auspices  of  bishops  and  arch- 
bishops, in  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Texas  and  Oregon,  and  perhaps 
in  some  other  States  and  Territories.  No  objection  is  made  to 
the  organization  of  Mormon  colonies,  provided  they  obey  the 
laws ; and,  as  a matter  of  fact,  the  Mormons  have  planted  large 
colonies  in  Idaho,  and  smaller  ones  in  Colorado  and  Arizona 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


39 


In  a few  instances  colonies  of  American  Protestant  denominations 
have  settled  in  a single  township,  and  have  done  well.  There 
are  Episcopal,  Presbyterian,  Methodist  and  possibly  Baptist 
colonies  of  this  sort.  Generally,  however,  our  American  colonists 
prefer  a diversity  of  religious  beliefs  in  their  settlements. 

Recently,  two  methods  of  settlement  and  improvement  of 
lands  have  been  adopted.  They  are  both  of  doubtful  expediency, 
so  far  as  the  future  of  the  States  and  Territories  is  concerned, 
though  of  great  present  profit  and  success  in  the  development 
of  new  regions.  The  first  method  has  been  largely  practised  in 
California,  and  is  coming  into  vogue  in  the  newer  States  and 
Territories.  A capitalist,  usually,  though  not  always,  a practical 
farmer,  stock-raiser  or  mining  operator,  or  sometimes  an  association 
of  capitalists,  acting  by  their  superintendent  or  general  manager,, 
purchases  a large  tract  of  land,  often  many  thousands  of  acres, 
adapted  to  his  purpose,  whether  of  raising  grain,  wine-making, 
stock  or  wool-growing,  or  mining,  erects  the  necessary  buildings, 
and  procures  the  best  and  latest  machinery  for  his  purpose,  and 
hires  his  laborers,  who  may  be  the  poorer  classes  of  foreigners, 
Mexicans,  Indians,  or  Chinese,  and 'works  his  estate  exclusively, 
or  almost  exclusively,  with  such  labor,  his  machinery  or  steam- 
driven  agricultural  implements  supplying  the  place  of  very  large 
numbers  of  laborers.  If  he  is  a farmer,  and  in  the  smooth 
prairie  lands,  he  breaks  up  the  soil  with  his  gangs  of  steam- 
plows,  or  an  army  of  plowing  machines  each  drawn  by  four 
norses  or  mules ; sows  his  wheat  or  other  grains  with  steam  or 
four-horse  drills ; irrigates  his  lands,  if  irrigation  is  necessary,  by 
water  raised  from  an  artesian  well,  by  steam  or  wind-power;  reaps, 
gathers  and  binds  or  more  expeditiously  still,  clips  off  the  heads 
of  the  grain  and  deposits  them  in  an  accompanying  wagon  by 
bushels,  whence  they  are  transferred  by  a chute  to  the  threshing- 
machine,  which  threshes,  winnows,  separates^and  sacks  the  grain 
with  little  human  intervention.  When  the  market  is  at  its. 
highest  point,  he  sends  to  it  his  hundred  thousand  or  two 
hundred  thousand  bushels  of  wheat,  his  oats,  barley,  and  corn  in 
nearly  equal  amounts,  and  employing  cheap  labor,  his  net  profits 
on  a single  year’s  crops  may  be  reckoned  by  the  hundred 


40 


THE  EVIL  OF  LARGE  LANDED  ESTATES. 


thousand  dollars,  though  his  cultivation  may  be  less  thorough, 
and  the  yield  per  acre  smaller,  than  on  smaller  and  more  carefully 
tilled  farms.  All  this  is  very  well  for  the  capitalist,  and  equally 
well  for  the  exporter  of  grain  ; but  it  is  not  so  well  for  the  State 
or  Territory,  nor  for  its  permanent  and  successful  development. 
These  large  estates  prevent  the  formation  of  villages  and  towns, 
♦and  the  establishment  of  primary  and  grammar  schools ; encourage 
absenteeism,  and  tend  to  the  establishment  of  a privileged  and 
oligarchical  class ; and  in  the  not  distant  future,  when  the  public 
lands  and  the  railroad  lands  are  all  sold,  will  brinof  about  a con- 
dition  of  things  such  as  now  exists  in  Great  Britain,  and  sooner 
than  there,  because  the  cultivation  is  more  superficial  and  the 
land,  skinned  for  present  crops,  will  soon  lose  its  fertility.  It 
is  a significant  fact  in  this  connection,  that  on  the  great  “ Dalrymple 
farm  ” in  Northern  Dakota,  with  its  more  than  30,000  acres  in 
grain,  the  yield  per  acre  is  much  less  than  that  of  adjacent  small 
farms,  and  that  the  yield  per  acre  diminishes  with  each  successive 
crop,  though  the  land  is  the  best  in  the  Red  River  valley. 

The  great  cattle  and  sheep  ranches  are  in  some  respects  still 
more  objectionable,  inasmuch  as  the  herdsman’s  life  has  a strong 
tendency  towards  a condition  of  semi-civilization.  The  owner 
of  these  immense  flocks  and  herds  may  be,  indeed,  like  the 
Oriental  patriarchs,  a man  of  culture  and  refinement,  a poet  or 
historian,  a king  among  men,  and  may  surround  his  children 
with  all  the  luxuries  of  civilization  ; but  his  herdsmen  or  shep- 
herds, without  opportunities  of  education,  and  far  from  civilizing 
influences,  will,  in  the  course  of  time,  become  mere  boors  and 
hinds.  In  the  wasteful  methods  of  stock-raising  in  these  regions, 
it  is  estimated  that  it  requires  fifty  acres  of  the  mountain 
pasturage  to  feed  a single  steer,  and  where  the  herd  amounts,  as 
it  not  unfrequently  does,  to  4,000  or  5,000  head,  it  may  require  a 
whole  county  to  furnish  them  with  sufficient  pasture.  This 
isolated  life  inevitably  leads  to  results,  directly  opposed  to  the 
whole  genius  of  our  institutions.  In  the  sale  of  the  public  lands, 
the  policy  of  the  government  has  been,  to  have  the  holdings 
small,  and  the  settlers  within  such  neighborhood  to  each  other, 
that  schools,  churches,  and  villages,  could  be  maintained;  this 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


41 


has  been,  to  some  extent,  also  the  policy  of  the  land-grant  rail- 
roads, though  those  holding  large  grants  have  too  often  departed 
from  it;  but  the  pressure  to  sell  large  quantities  of  grazing 
lands,  and  in  some  instances  farming  lands  also,  has  been  so 
great,  that  the  government  officers  and  the  railroad  officials  have 
too  often  yielded  to  it.  In  Texas,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Nevada, 
and  California,  the  old  Spanish  and  Mexican  land-laws  have 
prevailed,  under  which  a square  league  of  land  was  about  the 
smallest  parcel  put  upon  the  market,  and  from  six  to  thirty  leagues 
not  an  uncommon  purchase.  California  is  already  suffering  from 
these  immense  estates. 

Another  plan  now  prevailing  to  some  extent,  especially  among 
the  English  middle  classes,  people  of  fixed  incomes  which 
terminate  with  their  lives,  is  perhaps  less  objectionable  though 
tending  in  the  same  direction.  These  people,  younger  sons  of 
the  nobility  or  gentry,  retired  army  or  navy  officers,  clergymen 
or  their  families,  civil  servants,  etc.,  come  to  the  western  counter 
and  purchase  one  or  two  quarter  sections  or  more,  have  them 
broken  up,  and  perhaps  a log-house  or  sod-house  built,  and  let 
them,  the  first  year  for  half  the  crop,  and  in  the  years  that  follow 
for  $1.25  to  $1.50  per  acre.  If  their  means  are  sufficient,  they 
repeat  this  process,  every  year,  till  they  have  2,500  or  3,000 
acres  leased  in  this  way,  and  this  gives  them  a comfortable 
annual  income.  This  is  less  objectionable  than  the  purchase  of 
large  tracts,  because  these  quarter  sections  need  not  be  con- 
tiguous, and  there  will  thus  be  an  opportunity  for  sufficiently 
close  settlement  to  permit  the  establishment  of  good  schools  and 
villages ; and  these  land-holders  may  sell  their  improved  farms, 
at  prices  which  will  permit  them  to  make  still  larger  investments  ; 
but  there  is  a strong  tendency,  in  the  process,  toward  the  for- 
mation of  a landed  aristocracy. 


42 


SOILS,  GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALOGY. 


CHAPTER  VIL 

Variety  of  Soils  and  Surface — Geography  and  Geognosy — Soils — Geology 
— Characteristics  of  the  Rocky  Mountains — Volcanic  Remains  of  the 
Yellowstone  Country — The  Geysers — The  Vicinity  of  Salt  Lake — 
Professor  Geikie’s  Summary  of  the  Geology  of  the  Central  Region — ■ 
Mineralogy. 

The  variety  of  soils  in  this  vast  region  is  almost  infinite,  and 
in  this  chapter  we  can  only  glance  at  the  principal  causes  which 
lead  to  such  diversity.  There  are  nearly  2,000  miles  of  coast, 
washed  by  the  ocean  and  gulf  on  the  Pacific  and  in  Texas,  upon 
all  of  which  has  been  cast  by  the  waves,  sand  and  alluvium  to  a 
greater  or  less  breadth,  for  thousands  of  years.  The  very  heavy 
rains  on  the  west  coast  and  the  western  slope  of  the  Coast 
range,  aided  during  the  glacial  epoch  by  the  movements  of  the 
huge  glaciers,  the  largest  by  far  which  ever  existed  on  our  earth, 
disintegrated  the  rocks,  and  washed  down  upon  the  foot-hills 
their  constituents,  varying  according  to  the  nature  of  the  rocks, 
and  varying  also  in  the  fineness  of  their  comminution,  in  propor- 
tion as  they  were  for  a longer  or  shorter  time  ground  by  the  slow 
but  irresistible  motion  of  the  glaciers.  The  same  causes  pro- 
duced similar  effects,  in  the  early  periods,  on  both  the  eastern  and 
western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  great  but  now  elevated  valley  between  those  two  mountain 
chains,  as  well  as  the  greater  part  of  the  plains  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  were  for  ages  the  bed  of  immense  lakes  or 
inland  seas,  while  the  southern  portion  of  California  and  Nevada 
connecting  with  the  Pacific,  through  the  Tejon  pass,  which  was 
then  another  strait  of  Gibraltar,  formed  an  American  Mediterra- 
nean, where  there  is  now  only  a desert.  The  upheaval  of  the 
bottoms  of  all  these  salt  or  fresh  lakes,  led  to  their  drainage,  by 
the  Colorado  and  its  affluents,  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Arkansas,  the 
Yellowstone,  the  Missouri  and  the  Snake  rivers.  Most  of  these 
rivers,  and  pre-eminently  the  Colorado  and  its  tributaries,  cut 
their  way  through  the  soft  and  disintegrating  rocks  which  formed 
6 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


43 


their  beds,  to  such  a depth  as  to  make  their  channels  deep 
canons,  sometimes  from  3,000  to  6,000  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  plateau,  through  which  they  had  their  course.  The  pla- 
teaux were  thus  robbed  of  all  their  rainfall,  and  in  the  course  of 
time,  became  dry  and  largely  uninhabitable,  and  what  was  once 
a populous  region,  with  its  large  and  strong  cities,  was  changed 
into  an  arid  and  desert  land. 

In  some  portions  of  these  elevated  plains  thus  drained  of  their 
moisture,  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  covered,  especially  during  a 
long,  dry  season,  with  alkaline  salts,  sulphate  of  soda  and  potassa, 
sulphate  of  magnesia,  common  salt,  and  occasionally  biborate  of 
soda,  the  borax  of  commerce.  On  these  lands,  in  their  natural 
condition,  there  grows  only  the  despised  sage-brush.  In  the 
rare  instances  where  springs  are  found,  the  water  is  apt  to  be 
brackish. 

Yet  these  alkaline  lands,  when  broken  up  by  deep  plowing 
and  well  irrigated,  yield  most  astonishing  crops,  and  continue 
to  do  so  year  after  year,  while,  by  cultivation,  the  rainfall  is  in- 
creased,  and  the  barren  land  becomes  as  the  garden  of  Eden. 

Where  irrigation  is  impossible,  and  the  amount  of  alkali  is  ex- 
cessive, these  lands  are  yet  of  some  value  for  grazing,  and  the 
white  sage-brush,  once  regarded  as  the  most  worthless  of  all 
shrubs,  is  found  to  yield  a nutritious  pasturage  for  cattle,  after  the 
frost  has  touched  it. 

Farther -south,  on  what  is  known  as  the  Llano  Estacado  or 
“ staked  plain  ” of  Northwestern  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  that  re- 
markable product  of  a dry  country,  the  mezquite  tree,  is  found  in 
abundance,  and  its  large  and  long  roots  (nine-tenths  of  its  woody 
fibre  being  below  the  surface),  its  trunk,  its  leaves,  its  bark,  and 
its  gum  are  all  valuable.  Where  these  lands  are  broken  up  and 
plowed  deeply,  the  roots  of  the  mezquite  aid  in  bringing  up  the 
moisture  from  below,  and  the  rainfall  increases  from  year  to  year. 
Eventually  all  these  alkaline  lands,  or  nearly  all,  will  be  brought 
under  cultivation,  and  will  prove,  either  with  or  without  irrigation, 
some  of  the  most  productive  and  valuable  lands  of  the  West. 

The  soil  of  “the  plains,”  under  which  general  term  is  included 
the  territory  lying  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  especially  west 


44  SOILS,  GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALOGY. 

of  the  Missouri  river,  and  extending  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is, 
with  some  exceptions,  very  rich  and  permanently  productive. 
The  region  lying  between  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers  is 
not  properly  a plain  or  plateau,  for  there  are  considerable 
ranges  of  mountains  though  of  no  great  elevation.  In  some 
parts  of  it,  as  in  Minnesota,  Iowa,  and  Eastern  Dakota,  the 
prairies  or  gradually  rising  plateaux  predominate. 

But  the  “plains”  proper  include  Southern  Dakota,  below  the 
Black  Hills,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Eastern  Colorado,  Wyoming 
Territory,  and  most  of  Texas.  There  are  some  “ Bad  Lands,” 
though  only  a few  small  tracts  in  this  region ; but  the  greater  part  of 
it  is  an  alluvium  of  extraordinary  depth,  ranging  from  five  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty,  and  in  some  cases  two  hundred  feet.  F'or 
ages  this  region  was  the  bed  of  vast  fresh  water  lakes,  and  re- 
ceived from  the  streams  rushing  down  from  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
vast  quantities  of  loess,  the  debris  of  the  decomposed  rocks. 
Gradually  it  was  upheaved,  and  the  bed  of  the  lakes  became 
marshes,  their  waters  being  drained  off  through  the  Missouri  and 
its  affluents,  the  Platte,  the  Arkansas  and  Red  rivers,  and  the 
Rio  Grande.  The  process  of  slow  upheaval  still  continuing, 
these  marshes,  which  had  been  continually  enriched  by  the  silt 
from  the  overflow  of  the  rivers,  and  by  the  decay  of  vegetation 
for  thousands  of  years,  became  dry  land,  and  land  of  unexam- 
pled fertility.  The  fires  kindled  in  their  grass  and  forests  by 
roaming  Indian  tribes,  prevented  the  growth  of  forest  trees, 
over  large  tracts  of  this  region,  and  so  diminished  the  rainfall ; 
while  the  countless  herds  of  buffalo  in  their  headlong  tramps 
southward,  beat  the  soil  down  into  a solid  and  impenetrable 
crust,  which  permitted  the  rainfall  to  run  off  without  soaking  the 
earth.  Without  breaking  up  this  solid  crust,  successful  cultiva- 
tion was  impossible.  With  it,  the  crops  were  so  bountiful  as  to 
astonish  the  most  sanguine. 

Texas,  having  a more  varied  surface,  has  also  a greater  variety 
of  soils  than  any  other  of  the  States  or  Territories,  with  the  pos- 
sible exception  of  California.  The  coast  soil  is  a sandy,  grayish 
loam,  well  adapted  to  cotton  and  rice,  and,  where  darker  and 
richer,  the  best  sugar  land  in  the  United  States.  The  river 


C>W?  WESTEJ^N  EMPIRE. 


45 

bottom  lands  are  black,  rich  and  sticky  at  times,  and  form  the 
best  cotton  land  in  the  State.  Sometimes  small  tracts  lack  either 
the  phosphates,  or  sulphates,  or  both ; and  crops  will  not  grow 
on  them.  These  are  known  as  “poison  soils.”  A dark,  gray 
soil,  in  the  timber  lands,  is  found  excellent  for  all  kinds  of  fruits ; 
this  is  sometimes  called  the  mulatto  soil.  The  deep  red  soils, 
containing  some  oxides  of  iron,  are  also  well  adapted  to  fruit,  and 
to  grains  generally.  The  chocolate  soils  of  Western  Texas  are, 
perhaps,  the  finest  in  the  State,  producing  cotton,  corn  and  semi- 
tropical  fruits.  The  sandy  and  dryer  soils  of  the  north,  even  on 
the  lands  adjacent  to  the  Staked  Plains,  yield,  with  deep  plowing, 
very  large  crops  of  wheat.  Wheat  is  also  a good  crop  on  the 
red  soil. 

There  are,  of  course,  barren  soils  in  these  States  and  Terri- 
tories, though  many  of  those  which  are  so  regarded  need  only 
irrigation  and  deep  plowing  to  make  them  abundantly  productive. 

The  details  of  the  geological  structure  of  this  vast  region,  if 
they  were  attainable,  would  fill  many  volumes,  for  we  have  every 
form  of  cosmic  and  geologic  action  represented  here  which  has 
taken  place  in  any  part  of  our  globe — among  which  we  may  name 
the  tertiary  and  alluvial  and  diluvial  deposits  which  have  been 
made  on  its  2,000  miles  and  more  of  coast  line  during  their  alter- 
nate elevations  and  depressions  ; the  upheaval  of  the  lofty  moun- 
tain ridges  from  the  broad  and  level  plains ; the  effects  of  former 
extensive  volcanic  action,  and  its  remaining,  though  compara- 
tively enfeebled,  activity  at  various  points.  Then,  too,  there  are 
the  great  phenomena  of  glacial  action,  on  a scale  much  vaster 
than  that  of  any  existing  glaciers ; the  huge  horse-shoe-shaped 
moraines,  in  some  cases  filling  up  valleys,  in  others  producing 
large  lakes ; the  erosions  produced  from  the  ice  streams  of  these 
glaciers,  and  from  the  mountain  floods,  and  the  broken  barriers 
of  some  great  lakes ; the  depressions  produced  by  earthquake 
convulsions,  and  the  exposure  of  horizontal  strata  of  great  thick- 
ness of  the  Cretaceous  and  Carboniferous  formations,  where  the 
sharp  plough  of  the  glacier  had  cut  its  way,  or  the  force  of  the 
mountain  torrents,  of  great  volume,  had  worn  their  deep  canons 
through  them. 


GECLCGY  AND  MiNERALGGY. 


46 

The  grand  outlines  of  its  geologic  structure  which  we  have 
thus  formulated  show  conclusively  that,  if  the  science  of  geology 
had  had  its  birth  in  this  great  empire  of  the  West  instead  of  the 
comparatively  limited  formations  of  Western  Europe,  we  should 
have  had  a system,  which  would  have  required  fewer  additions 
and  accommodations,  to  fit  it  to  represent  the  geological  structure 
of  all  the  continents,  and  many  of  the  questions,  v/hich  even 
now  vex  the  souls  of  scientists,  would  have  received  their  final 
solution. 

Considerable  portions  of  this  vast  region  have  never  been 
explored  geologically,  except  by  a very  superficial  reconnoissance 
at  distant  points;  among  these  are  Texas  and  most  of  California, 
Washington  Territory  and  much  of  Utah,  Nevada,  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico.  The  first  three  seem  to  have  geological  features 
peculiar  to  themselves,  to  which  we  may  allude  more  fully  when 
speaking  of  them  individually.  The  geological  structure  of  the 
more  central  States  and  Territories,  and  the  effects  of  glacial 
action  upon  them,  are  very  admirably  summarized  in  a recent 
lecture  of  Professor  Archibald  Geikie,  the  eminent  Scottish 
geologist,  who  visited  them  in  1879,  portions  of  which  we  quote: 

“He  had,”  he  said,  “three  objects  in  the  expedition — (i)  To 
study  the  effects  of  atmospheric  agencies  and  of  erosion  gen- 
erally upon  the  surface  of  the  land;  and  there  was  no  region 
where  those  lessons  could  be  learned  with  more  powerful  im- 
pressiveness than  in  those  great  plateaux  and  table-lands.  (2) 
To  study  the  relation  which  the  structure  of  the  rocks  under- 
neath bore  to  the  form  of  the  surface.  In  this  country  and  in 
Europe  generally  one  was  continually  brought  face  to  face  with 
evidence  of  dislocations,  profusion  of  igneous  rocks,  faults  and 
so  on,  which  greatly  complicated  the  geological  structure,  and 
made  it  sometimes  by  no  means  easy  to  tell  how  far  the  pres- 
ent irregularities  of  the  surface  were  due  to  unequal  waste 
of  surface,  and  how  far  to  the  direct  effects  of  underground 
causes.  The  western  regions  of  America  which  retained  to  this 
day  for  thousands  of  square  miles  the  horizontality  which  they 
had  originally,  presented  wonderful  facilities  for  the  discussion 
of  this  subject.  (3)  To  watch  with  his  own  eyes  some  of  the 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


4; 


last  phases  of  volcanic  action.  He  had  been  familiar  with  these 
as  displayed  in  Italy  and  in  the  Lipari  Isles ; but  he  was  anxious 
to  see  some  of  those  marvellous  evidences  of  the  gradual  wearing 
and  decay  of  a vast  volcanic  area  which  were  so  well  seen  in  the 
famous  region  of  the  Yellowstone.” 

The  Professor  went  on  to  give  a brief  account  of  his  journey, 
mentioning  that  in  crossing  the  prairies  toward  the  Rocky 
Mountains  he  noted,  in  the  few  sections  that  occurred,  soft,  gray 
clays  and  marls,  evidently  cretaceous,  and  sometimes  tertiary 
rocks.  Getting  down  at  some  of  the  stations,  and  looking  at 
the  ant-hills  and  burrows  of  the  prairie-dog,  he  found  that  the 
surface  of  the  prairie  was  veneered  with  a thin  coating  of  pink- 
ish, fine-grained  sand,  sometimes  approaching  to  gravel,  its 
color  being  due  to  the  presence  of  a great  many  small  pieces  of 
fresh  felspar.  It  was  clear  that  this  mineral,  as  well  as  the  quartz 
and  fragments  of  topaz  which  he  saw,  did  not  belong  to  the 
strata  in  which  they  lay.  In  going  west  the  grains  of  sand  began 
to  get  coarser,  and  assume  the  form  of  distinct  pebbles,  till, 
when  he  reached  the  mountains,  these  became  huge  blocks  and 
boulders,  evidently  derived  from  the  hills  in  their  neighborhood. 
After  submitting  that  the  phrase  “ Rocky  Mountains  ” was  a very 
unfortunate  one,  as  applied  to  the  great  number  of  independent 
ridges  comparable  to  waves,  that  covered  this  part  of  America, 
the  Professor  said  that  he  halted  for  a little  while  on  the  flanks 
of  the  first  great  mountain  ranges* — those  that  formed  the 
colossal  bulwarks  of  Colorado.  As  seen  from  the  prairies,  they 
form  a very  picturesque  line  of  peaks.  They  had  been  pushed 
as  a great  wedge  through  the  rocks  forming  the  prairies,  and 
had  carried  those  rocks  up  with  them.  Crystalline  masses 
formed  the  central  core  and  crest  of  the  range,  and  this  feature 
was  combined  with  some  very  interesting  facts  connected  with 
the  surface  erosion  of  the  district.  He  found  then  where  all  the 
pink  felspar  and  gravel  had  come  from ; it  had  been  borne  down 
from  this  region,  where  great  masses  of  pink  granite,  gray  gneiss 
and  other  crystalline  rocks  formed  the  core  of  the  mountains. 
He  found  that  the  mountains  themselves  had  been  covered  with 
glaciers,  which  had  gone  out  into  the  plains  and  shed  their  huge 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALOGY. 


48 

horseshoe-shaped  moraines,  where  now  everything  was  parched 
and  barren.  Having  crossed  the  watershed  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  he  struck  westward  into  the  Uintah,  one  of  the  few 
ranges  in  that  region  that  had  an  east  and  west  direction.  The 
central  portion  of  this  range  consisted,  not  of  crystalline  rocks 
wedged  through  the  older  rocks,  but  of  carboniferous  rocks  that 
had  been  upraised  as  a great  flat  dome,  and  had  been  above 
water  for  a very  long  time.  This  carboniferous  centre  was  par- 
ticularly interesting  from  the  fact  of  its  presenting  the  strata 
perfectly  horizontal.  They  could  be  seen,  terrace  after  terrace, 
for  miles,  and  it  could  be  noted  whether  or  not  they  had  been 
cut  through,  by  faults,  to  what  extent  they  had  been  twisted,  and 
to  what  extent  eroded  by  atmospheric  influences.  Getting  on 
the  tops  of  these  great  mountains,  he  could  see  that  the  strata 
were  almost  entirely  horizontal  for  miles,  and  that  the  valleys 
had  been- trenched  out  of  them,  not  by  means  of  faults  at  all,  but 
actually  by  erosion  of  the  surface.  He  found  also  that  the 
numerous  lakes  were  true  remains  of  erosion,  that  they  had  not 
been  formed  by  any  subterranean  movements,  but  actually 
gouged  out  by  the  ice  that  once  covered  those  mountains. 
Striking  into  one  of  the  valleys,  he  found  beautiful  horseshoe 
moraines.  These  had  gone  across  the  valley  and  formed  a suc- 
cession of  lakes  ; while  the  beavers  had  made  a great  many  more 
lakes  in  places  not  reached  by  the  moraines.  In  most  of  those  ’ 
valleys  there  were  hundreds  of  acres  of  bog-land,  entirely  due  to 
the  damming  of  the  waters  by  the  beavers.  The  plains  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Uintah  Mountains,  were  called  “Bad  Lands,” 
because  they  were  crumbling  down  under  the  action  of  the 
weather,  and  nothing  would  grow  upon  them.  A skeleton  found 
in  a hill  of  that  district  was  brought  to  Professor  Marsh,  and 
turned  out  to  be  the  bones  of  an  extinct  and  undescribed  reptile. 

From  the  Uintah  Mountains  Professor  Geikie  found  his  way 
north  into  the  Yellowstone  country,  and  examined  the  fading 
traces  of  volcanic  action.  The  volcanoes  seemed  in  that  region 
to  have  confined  themselves  very  much  to  the  valleys.  Ihe 
heights  on  either  hand  consisted  of  crystalline  rocks ; the  bottom 
of  the  valley  had  been  literally  deluged  with  sheets  of  lava. 


OVR  WEST  ERA/  EMPIRE. 


49 

These  were  examined  with  considerable  care.  In  the  course  of 
the  examination,  huge  mounds  of  gravel  and  stones  were  met 
with,  which,  at  the  first  glance,  were  evidently  moraines.  The 
first  was  marked  by  a huge  block  of  rock,  an  erratic  of  coarse 
granite  different  from  the  rocks  round  about.  Such  blocks  he 
found  to  increase  in  number  as  he  went  up  the  valley;  and  on 
entering  the  second  canon,  or  gorge,  he  found  the  sides  exqui- 
sitely glaciated.  It  was  clear,  therefore,  that  not  only  was  this 
second  canon  old ; it  was  older  than  the  glacial  period ; it  sup- 
plied a channel  for  the  glacier  that  ground  its  way  out  from  those 
mountains.  Endeavorine  to  estimate  the  minimum  thickness  of 
the  ice,  he  traced  strise  up  to  i,ooo  feet,  and  they  evidently  went 
higher  than  that.  But  in  going  farther  up  the  valley,  he  found 
that  the  erratic  blocks  of  granite  and  gneiss  dropped  by  the 
glacier  as  it  melted  went  far  above  the  1,000-feet  limit;  he  got 
them  on  the  shoulder  of  one  of  the  great  hills  overlooking  the 
valley  1,600  or  1,700  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  valley;  the 
ice,  therefore,  must  have  been  1,600  or  1,700  feet  thick.  It  thus 
appeared  that  not  only  did  those  mountains  possess  glaciers,  but 
some  of  these  were  of  such  thickness  as  to  deserve  the  name  of 
ice-sheets,  covering  the  whole  surrounding  region.  As  to  the 
volcanic  phenomena  of  the  district,  he  saw  evidence  of  a long 
series  of  eruptions,  one  after  another,  separated  by  prolonged 
intervals,  during  which  the  river  was  at  work  cutting  out  the 
older  lavas,  the  newer  lavas  filling  up  the  hollows  eroded  by  the 
river.  In  the  grand  canon  of  the  Yellowstone,  he  saw  the  most 
marvellous  piece  of  mineral  color  anywhere  to  be  seen  in  the 
world.  It  was  cut  out  of  tufts  of  lavas,  showing  sulphur  yellow, 
green,  vermilion,  crimson,  and  orange  tints,  so  marvellous  that 
it  was  impossible  to  transfer  them  to  paper. 

Leaving  the  Yellowstone  Valley,  he  struck  southwestward 
into  the  famous  geyser  regions,  where  a number  of  geysers  had 
been  made  known  of  late  years  more  wonderful  than  those  of 
Iceland.  He  tried  hard  here  to  get  a pool  to  wash  in,  but  could 
find  nothing  below  212°,  and  the  only  chance  of  getting  a bath 
was  to  get  into  some  hole  where  the  water  had  had  time  to  cool 
after  flowing  out  of  the  hot  crater.  The  whole  ground  was 


5o 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALOGY. 


honeycombed  with  holes,  every  one  of  which  was  filled  with 
gurgling,  boiling  water.  Some  went  off  with  wonderful  regu- 
larity, others  were  more  capricious  ; and  the  chief  geyser,  which 
threw  up  an  enormous  body  of  water  and  steam,  was  very  un- 
certain in  its  movements.  In  one  part  of  the  district  he  came 
upon  a marvellous  mud  spring,  the  centre  of  it  boiling  like  a 
great  porridge-pot  full  of  white  and  very  pasty  porridge.  Steam 
rose  through  this,  and,  after  forming  great  bubbles,  burst,  the 
mud  thrown  out  forming  a sort  of  rim  round  the  crater.  After 
describing  a meeting  with  Indians  on  their  way  to  a great  coun- 
cil, the  Professor  said  his  road  aPer  that  lay  across  what  he 
supposed  was  one  of  the  most  wonderful  lava  fields  in  the  world 
— hundreds  and  thousands  of  square  miles  of  country — a sort 
of  rough  plain — having  been  absolutely  deluged  with  lava.  How 
this  lava  was  poured  out  he  at  present  could  hardly  tell ; it 
seemed  to  have  risen  through  long  fissures,  and  spread  out  so 
as  to  fill  a vast  area.  Here  and  there  alone  the  marein  of  it 
were  distinct  volcanic  mounds,  apparently  formed  during  later 
stages  of  its  volcanic  history. 

Coming  at  length  to  the  Salt  Lake  territory,  one  of  the  first 
geological  features  that  struck  him  was  the  evidence  of  the 
former  vast  expansion  of  the  Salt  Lake.  He  found  traces  of  a 
terrace  well  marked  along  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  about 
1,000  feet  above  the  present  level,  and  so  succeeded  in  discover- 
ing what  was  the  relation  between  the  extended  lake,  which  must 
have  been  a great  many  times  larger  than  the  present  one,  and 
1,000  feet  deeper,  and  the  glaciers  which  at  one  time  covered  the 
Wahsatch  and  the  Yellowstone  Mountains.  Striking  into  some 
of  the  canons  descending  from  the  Wahsatch  into  the  Salt  Lake 
basin,  he  found  evidence  of  wonderful  glaciation.  The  rocks 
were  smoothed  and  polished  and  striated  by  the  glaciers  that 
had  come  down  from  the  heights,  and  these  glaciers  had  carried 
with  them  great  quantities  of  moraine  matter.  Huge  mounds  of 
rubbish  blocked  up  the  valleys  here  and  there,  and  these  mounds 
came  down  to  the  level  of  the  highest  terrace.  That  was  to  say, 
that,  when  the  Salt  Lake  extended  far  beyond  its  present  area, 
and  was  over  i,ooo  feet  deeper  than  now,  the  glaciers  from  the 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


5l 

Wahsatch  Mountains  came  down  to  its  edge  and  shed  their 
bergs  over  its  waters.  On  his  return  journey  the  Professor  re- 
sumed the  examination  of  the  prairies.  Coming  out  of  the 
Colorado  Mountains,  he  noted,  in  connection  with  the  gravel 
formerly  observed,  great  quantities  of  a peculiar  gray  clay. 
This  clay  was  inter-stratified  with  the  gravel,  and  here  and  there 
contained  a small  lacustrine,  or  terrestrial  shell.  It  was,  there- 
fore, a fresh-water  deposit,  a deposit  swept  by  the  waters  coming 
down  from  the  mountains  over  the  prairie ; and  marked  an  inter- 
val in  the  period  during  which  the  gravel  and  sand  were  being 
thrown  down.  He  traced  the  gravel  mounds  over  an  extensive 
tract,  and  he  found  the  gravel  had  been  deposited  irregularly, 
just  as  would  have  been  the  case  from  the  action  of  water 
escaping  from  the  melting  ends  of  the  ice.  A great  current 
would  traverse  the  plain  in  one  direction ; then  the  ice  mass 
would  send  water  in  another,  so  that  the  whole  prairie  must 
have  been  flooded  with  water  derived  from  the  melting  ends  of 
the  vast  sheets  of  ice.  It  was  those  excessive  floods  that 
brought  down  the  gravel  and  sand ; and  during  that  time  there 
were  intervals  when  nothing  but  the  finest  mud  was  coming 
down,  just  as  was  seen  in  the  valleys  of  the  Rhine  and  Danube. 

It  seems  to  be  demonstrated  by  the  discoveries  of  the  past 
few  years  that  no  equal  portion  of  the  earth’s  surface  contains 
so  large  an  amount  of  available  mineral  wealth  as  this  Western 
Empire.  In  only  three  of  the  twenty  States  and  Territories 
which  are  comprised  within  it,  viz.,  Louisiana,  Kansas,  and 
Nebraska,  has  there  been  wanting  gold  or  silver  ores,  and  it  is 
as  yet  uncertain  whether  two  of  these  may  not  yield  silver  in 
paying  quantities.  All  the  others  contain  both  metals,  usually 
in  large  quantities,  and  some  of  them  have,  in  addition,  large 
mines  of  quicksilver,  and  smaller  but  profitable  ones  of  platinum. 
The  so-called  baser  but  really  more  useful  metals,  copper,  zinc, 
lead,  and  iron,  are  found  in  every  known  form  and  in  the  great- 
est profusion.  Lead  is  the  most  usual  basis  or  matrix  of  the 
silver  mines,  either  in  the  form  of  galena,  or  of  carbonate,  and 
sometimes  of  carburet,  etc. ; but  copper'  and  zinc  are  not  un^ 
frequently  found  in  combination  with  both  gold  and  silver. 


UNIVERSITY  OF 
ILLINOIS  library 


52 


MINERALOGY. 


Both  copper  and  zinc  are  also  found,  uncombined  with  either 
g.old  or  silver,  and  of  such  purity  as  to  be  profitably  mined  in 
many  localities. 

Iro7i  ores  are  found  abundantly  in  every  State  and  Territory, 
and  every  known  ore  is  found  in  some  districts,  and  frequently 
several  different  ores,  as  the  magnetic,  the  haematite,  or  the 
specular  ores,  in  close  proximity  to  each  other,  and  all  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  coal  beds.  The  railroad  iron  and  steel  of 
the  future  will  be  made  from  native  ores  in  close  neighborhood 
to  the  tracks  where  it  is  needed.  But  it  is  not  alone  for  railroad 
iron  or  steel  rails,  that  these  vast  iron  deposits  can  be  utilized. 
The  iron  of  Utah,  of  California,  of  Montana,  of  Colorado,  Texas, 
Missouri  and  Arizona  is  not  surpassed  by  any  in  the  world;  and 
when  the  time  shall  come,  if  it  ever  does,  when  the  long  conflict 
between  heavy  guns  and  armored  ships  shall  be  decided,  our 
furnaces  in  this  Western  Empire  will  furnish  the  iron  and  our 
foundries  the  iron  and  steel  plates  or  the  guns  which  are  to 
shatter  them,  of  a quality  which  has  never  been  equalled.  For 
all  building  purposes,  and  for  suspension  bridges,  for  hardware, 
cutlery,  tubing,  gas,  water,  and  sewer  pipes ; for  stoves,  ranges, 
furnaces,  and  heaters,  and  every  other  use,  to  which  the  best 
qualities  of  iron  and  steel  are  capable  of  being  applied,  the  iron 
ores  of  the  Great  West  will  be  found  sufficient  to  supply  the 
needs  of  a world. 

Nickel,  now  coming  so  rapidly  into  use  for  so  many  purposes, 
is  an  incidental  product  of  many  of  the  iron  mines,  and  can  be 
largely  produced.  As  yet  we  are  importing  all  or  nearly  all  the 
tm  we  use,  but  the  tin  deposits  in  California,  and  in  several  oi 
the  other  States  and  Territories,  when  once  developed  by  capi- 
tal and  skill,  may  prove  as  profitable  as  those  of  Cornwall  or  the 
Straits  of  Banca. 

Of  the  rarer  metals,  which  possess  but  a limited  economical 
value,  most  are  found  as  abundantly  in  the  Great  West  as  any- 
where. Osmium  and  iridium,  two  of  the  hardest  of  known 
metals,  used  in  the  gold-pen  manufacture,  as  well  as  in  other 
cases  where  hard  and  infusible  points  are  required,  are  found 
only  on  the  Pacific  coast;  many  of  the  exceedingly  rare  metals 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


53 

known  only  to  cnemists,  are  obtained  from  earths  or  mineral 
waters  found  here,  while  arsenic,  antimony,  bismuth,  ceriurn, 
etc.,  etc.,  are  found  in  connection  with  the  ores  of  other  metals. 

The  elementary  bases  of  the  mineral  earths  and  salts  are  more 
easily  separated  here  than  elsewhere ; and  the  mineral  springs 
and  volcanic  geysers  and  fountains  of  the  Yellowstone,  of  many 
places  in  California  and  Nevada,  of  Colorado,  Arizona  and 
Texas,  yield  not  only  all  the  salts  of  soda,  potassa  and  lime,  but 
their  elementary  bases  also.  Borax  (biborate  of  soda)  is  found 
as  a crust  over  shallow  lakes  in  California  and  Nevada;  car- 
bonate of  soda,  very  pure  in  the  so-called  alkaline  lands  ; nitrates 
of  soda  and  potassa,  in  commercial  quantities,  at  various  points ; 
sulphate  of  lime  (the  commercial  plaster  of  Paris)  comes  to 
light  not  only  in  its  ordinary  condition  of  gypsum,  of  great  value 
as  a fertilizer,  but  in  its  rarer  and  more  beautiful  forms  of  sele- 
nite, .alabaster,  etc.  Salt  is  found  in  every  shape,  from  the  rock- 
salt,  hewn  out  in  great  cubical  blocks,  to  the  brine  springs  of 
varying  density,  and  the  salt  basins  around  the  Great  Salt  Lake 
and  along  the  shores  and  bays  of  the  Pacific.  The  manufacture 
of  salt  on  a large  scale  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  enterprises 
which  could  be  undertaken.  The  market  is  unlimited,  and  the 
prices  would  be  remunerative.  Most  of  the  mineral  salts  and 
acids  might  be  manufactured  also  on  the  large  scale  at  many 
points. 

Asphaltum  and  petroleum  are  found  in  large  quantities  in 
California,  Utah,  Wyoming  and  in  the  volcanic  region  around  the 
headwaters  of  the  Yellowstone;  and  both  are  likely  to  be  exten- 
sively utilized  in  the  near  future.  Coal  occurs  abundantly  and 
of  all  qualities  at  numerous  points  in  this  region.  Lignite  (the 
coal  formation  of  the  tertiary)  is  mined  in  Kansas,  Colorado, 
Wyoming,  and  perhaps  farther  west.  It  is  of  very  good  quality, 
and  is  used  on  the  railroad  locomotives,  in  manufactories  and 
dwellings  to  some  extent.  There  is  also  a bituminous  coal  of 
very  good  quality,  but  not  a coking  coal,  in  Kansas,  Wyoming 
(where  the  coal-beds  are  very  extensive),  in  Colorado,  and  in  Utah 
and  New  Mexico.  The  coal-beds  in  Utah,  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona  are  extensive,  and  of  extraordinary  thickness.  The 


MINERAL  OGY. 


54 

coal  is  of  excellent  quality,  and -some  of  it  anthracite  and  semh 
anthracite.  There  are  extensive  coal-beds  also  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  those  of  Washington  Territory,  and  the  islands  off  the 
coast,  are  anthracite  of  the  very  best  quality.  Coal  is  also  found, 
and  of  good  quality,  in  Texas  and  Arkansas,  but  the  reliance  for 
fuel  there  is  yet  mostly  on  wood.  Marls  and  peats  are  found  in 
many  of  the  States  and  Territories,  and,  like  the  gypsum,  may 
yet  come  into  demand  for  replacing  some  of  the  elements  of 
vegetation,  which  have  been  drawn  from  the  rich  soil  by  the  too 
frequent  sowing  of  the  same  crop.  At  present,  however,  the 
soil  seems  absolutely  inexhaustible,  and  with  a proper  rotation  of 
crops  and  constant  deep  ploughing  it  probably  is  so. 

There  are  found  in  the  'Rocky  Mountains,  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
the  Cascade  Mountains,  the  Coast  Range,  and  the  numerous 
cross  ranges  and  lateral  spurs — such  as  the  Uintah,  the  Wall- 
satch,  the  Bitter  Root,  Wind  river.  Sweet  Water  or  Laramie 
ranges,  and  at  the  entrance  or  exit  of  the  canons  of  the  CoL 
orado,  building-stones  of  the  greatest  variety,  granite,  sienite, 
marbles  of  all  hues  and  qualities,  limestones,  slates  and  sand- 
stones of  every  shade.  Many  of  the  marbles  are  very  beautiful 
and  exquisitely  veined ; others  of  the  purest  and  most  brilliant 
white,  suitable  for  statuary  and  ornamental  purposes. 

In  the  Yellowstone  Lake  region,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Great 
Salt  Lake,  and  in  the  sides  of  the  canons  of  the  Yellowstone, 
Snake,  Columbia,  Colorado,  and  other  large  rivers,  the  stratified 
clays  exhibit  smh  an  infinity  of  shades  of  the  most  brilliant 
colors  as  to  bafide  the  skill  of  the  most  accomplished  artist,  and 
throw  him  into  the  depths  of  despair  at  his  inability  to  reproduce 
them. 

What  are  known  as  the  “Bad  Lands'*  in  Dakota,  Nebraska, 
Wyoming,  and  Montana  abound  in  fossils,  and  recent  explora- 
tions show  that  there  are  deposited  here  in  the  successive  strata, 
eroded  by  water  and  ice,  the  material  from  which  can  be  traced 
the  history  of  families  of  animals  in  their  various  stages  of  ad- 
vance or  degradation,  to  a greater  extent  than  in  any  other 
explored  region  of  the  earth’s  surface.  Vastly  greater  discov- 
eries undoubtedly  remain  to  be  made,  and  it  is  perhaps  safe  to 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


55 


predict,  that  these  wild  and  utterly  desolate  lands  will  yet  yield, 
to  the  scientific  explorer,  a complete  history  of  the  mammals  and 
reptiles  which  lived  on  the  earth  in  the  carboniferous  and  cre- 
taceous periods. 

In  that  class  of  minerals  known  as  precious  stones  there  is 
hardly  anything  lacking  except  the  diamond,  and  it  is  certainly 
within  the  bounds  of  possibility  that  even  that  may  yet  be  found. 
What  are  known  as  California  diamonds,  though  possessing 
many  characteristics  of  the  true  gem,  are  probably  only  very 
fine  specimens  of  crystals  of  quartz  or  silica.  But  the  other 
valuable  gems,  as  emeralds,  probably  also  rubier  and  topazes, 
precious  beryls,  chrysolite,  amethyst,  gold-stones,  tourmalines, 
jades,  the  beautiful  copper  ore  known  as  malachite,  agates  and 
carnelians  of  great  beauty,  jet,  etc.,  etc.,  are  sufficiently  plentiful, 
in  one  part  of  the  country  or  another. 

Porcelain  clays,  ochres,  barytes,  and  other  minerals  and  earths 
of  economic  use  are  found  in  most  of  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories. Mineral  springs,  and  waters  of  every  variety  and  every 
degree  of  temperature,  from  boiling  to  freezing,  are  found 
everywhere  in  the  mountains,  and  not  a few  in  the  plains.  Col- 
orado, Montana,  Idaho,  Wyoming,  Utah,  California,  Arizona,  Texas 
and  Arkansas  abound  in  these  healing  waters.  In  Colorado 
there  are  hundreds  of  them  already  claiming  patronage,  each 
with  some  peculiar  merit.  In  the  Yellowstone  Park  and  its 
vicinity  most  of  the  springs  are  too  hot  for  bathing ; but  when 
partially  cooled,  possess  remarkable  hygienic  virtues. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Climates — Variety  of  Climate — Causes — Rainfall — Comparison  of  differ- 
ent Sections — Causes  of  deficient  Rainfall — Winds — Character  and 
Effect  of  different  Winds — The  Hot  Winds  from  Mexico. 

In  a region  extending  1,700  miles  from  north  to  south,  and 
1,800  from  east  to  west,  there  would  be  a considerable  range  of 
climatic  conditions,  even  if  the  whole  tract  were  nearly  a dead 


56 


VARIATIONS  OF  CLIMATE. 


level ; but  when  two-thirds  or  three-fourths  of  it  is  traversed  by 
mountain  chains,  many  of  whose  summits  have  an  elevation  of 
13,000  to  14,000  feet,  and  the  average  height  of  its  plateaux  and 
valleys  ranges  from  4,000  to  8,500  feet ; when  on  the  more 
northern  summits,  snow  lies  throughout  the  year ; and  when  the 
temperature  of  at  least  the  western  half  is  modified  by  the 
breezes  and  moisture  from  the  Pacific,  by  the  influences  of  the 
Pacific  gulf  stream,  and  by  the  climatic  law  that  the  Western 
coast  of  a continent  has  always  a milder  and  higher  temperature 
than  the  East  coast ; when,  also,  the  temperature  of  the  South- 
west is  elevated  by  the  hot  and  dry  winds  which  come  from 
tropical  Mexico ; and  the  cyclones  formed  in  the  Caribbean  sea 
and  the  Mexican  gulf  contribute  their  share  to  the  disturbance 
of  atmospheric  conditions,  there  would  seem  to  be  causes  enough 
to  account  for  the  extraordinary  diversities  of  climate  which 
prevail  in  this  Western  Empire. 

The  climate  on  the  northwestern  coast  in  Washington  Ter- 

o 

ritory  ana  Oregon  is  temperate,  and  the  range  comparatively 
small.  The  mercury  seldom  rises  above  90°  F.,  in  many  seasons 
not  reaching  that  figure,  and  rarely  falls  below  10°  or  12°.  In 
some  seasons  the  lowest  point  reached  is  18°  or  20°.  The 
average  annual  range  is  from  70°  to  80°.  The  range  on  the 
California  coast,  at  Los  Angeles,  San  Diego,  etc.,  is  still  smaller, 
in  some  years  not  exceeding  55°  or  60°.  In  San  Francisco  the 
range  is  not  over  50°  or  53° — between  39°  and  90°  or  92°.  These 
equable  climates  are  very  favorable  to  the  health  of  invalids,  es- 
pecially to  such  as  are  suffering  from  pulmonary  diseases.  East 
of  the  Coast  range,  and  in  a still  greater  degree,  east  of  the  Cas- 
cades or  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  we  find 
greater  extremes  of  cold,  and  in  some  instances  of  heat  also. 
The  plains  of  Eastern  Washington  and  Oregon  have  extreme 
heat  in  summer,  rising  sometimes  to  or  above  100°  F.,  and  cold 
equally  extreme  in  winter,  falling  to — 30°  or  even  lower  in  winten 
making  the  annual  range  not  less  than  130°  F.  But  probably 
Pembina,  in  Dakota,  just  on  the  British  line,  49°  north  latitude, 
is  the  coldest  inhabited  place  in  all  this  Western  Empire,  and  as 
the  summer  heat  is  intense,  though  for  a brief  period  only,  its 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  St 

annual  range  is  the  greatest.  The  spirit  thermometer  often 
marks  — 50°  in  the  winter,  and  in  the  winter  of  1879-80  it  is  re- 
ported to  have  fallen  to  — 60°..  As  it  attains  94°  in  the  summer, 
this  gives  a range  of  154°.  The  remainder  of  Dakota  and  Min- 
nesota is  not  subject  to  such  extreme  changes,  though  the  valley 
of  the  Red  river  of  the  North  seems  to  be  the  gateway  through 
which  the  biting  cold  from  the  Arctic  regions  finds  its  way  south- 
ward. The  interior  valleys  of  California  are  much  hotter  in  sum- 
mer than  the  coast,  and  the  winter  temperature  is  somewhat 
lower.  Their  range  is  from  76°  to  83°.  In  portions  of  New 
Mexico  the  climate  is  more  equable,  the  mercury  rarely  rising  in 
Santa  Fe  above  90°,  though  for  one  or  two  days  in  December  it 
may  drop  to  zero.  But  the  hottest  portions  of  this  whole  region 
are  unquestionably  Southern  Arizona  and  Southern  Texas. 
At  Yuma,  Maricopa  Wells, Tucson,  Phoenix,  Wickenbergand  other 
towns  of  Southern  Arizona,  and  at  Rio  Grande  City,  Laredo, 
Corsicana  and  other  towns  of  Southern  Texas  (Galveston  ex- 
cepted, in  consequence  of  its  island  climate),  the  summer  heat 
during  June,  July,  August  and  September  reaches  117°,  and  oc- 
casionally even  more,  and  rises  above  100°  usually  for  three- 
fourths  of  the  days  of  those  months.  Some  years  ago  a company 
of  soldiers  were  stationed  at  a fort  in  one  of  the  interior  valleys 
of  California.  The  weather  was  fearfully  hot,  the  mercury  at 
over  110°  in  the  shade,  and  the  men  were  grumbling  as  only 
soldiers  can  grumble  at  the  heat.  After  a time  one  old  soldier, 
bronzed' by  the  tropical  heats,  said:  “ Boys,  stop  grumbling;  this 
weather  is  not  to  be  compared  with  what  we  had  at  Fort  Yuma.” 

Were  you  ever  at  Fort  Yuma?  ” asked  the  soldiers.  “Yes,  I 
was  there  three  years,”  said  the  veteran.  “Well,  how  hot  was 
it  there  ? How  high  did  the  thermometer  get  ? ” “I  don’t  know 
anything  about  your  thermometers,”  answered  the  soldier ; “ but  I 
can  tell  you  this : when  I had  been  there  about  two  years,  two 
of  our  fellows  died,  and  they  were  pretty  hard  fellows,  too. 
Well,  the  second  night  after  they  died  they  came  back  after  their 
blankets,  and  they  hadn’t  wanted  them  once  in  all  the  while  they 
had  been  in  Yuma.” 

In  the  region  known  as  the  plains,  which  embraces  the  greater 


58 


VAJ^IATIONS  OF  CLIMATE. 


part  of  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Western  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Kansas, 
Southeastern  Dakota,  Eastern  Wyoming  and  Eastern  Colorado, 
part  of  Arkansas  and  the  Indian  Territory,  and  Northern  Texas, 
the  climate  is  generally  warm  in  summer,  though  the  heat  is  not 
intense.  The  spring  opens  earlier  as  we  proceed  southward, 
and  the  autumn  is  later.  There  are  strong  winds  and  some- 
times cyclones,  but,  except  in  Minnesota  and  Iowa,  the  snow  does 
not  cover  the  ground  for  any  long  period,  and  cattle  and  sheep 
require  little  or  no  shelter  or  winter  feeding.  Prudent  herdsmen 
and  sheep-masters  make  provision  for  fifty  or  sixty  days  shelter 
of  their  herds  or  flocks,  and  for  feeding  them  during  that  time  ; but 
in  at  least  two  seasons  out  of  three,  the  food  and  shelter  are 
not  needed,  or  for  a few  days  only.  This  does  not  apply  to  the 
two  States  named  above,  where  the  winter  generally  lasts  for  at 
least  four  or  five  months.  There  is,  moreover,  a very  consider- 
able difference  in  the  climate  of  these  plains,  resulting  from  their 
increasing  elevation  as  we  proceed  westward.  Though  they  are 
called  plains  and  prairies,  they  are  really  plateaux,  rising  grad- 
ually from  the  Mississippi  or  Missouri  river  to  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Theirelevation  on  the  eastern  border  of 
the  plateau  is  from  600  to  800  feet  above  the  sea.  At  the  western 
boundary  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  it  is  over  5,000  feet  aboye 
the  sea,  and  at  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  Eastern 
Colorado  between  6,000  and  7,000  feet.  Indeed,  so  gradual  is 
the  ascent,  and  so  nearly  of  the  same  height  with  the  passes  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains  (that  over  which  the  Union  Pacific  crosses 
being  only  about  8,700  feet  above  the  sea)  that  passengers  on 
that  road  often  inquire,  when  they  will  begin  to  ascend  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  after  they  have  crossed  this  pass,  or,  as  the  western 
people  say,  “ the  divide.”  On  these  more  elevated  lands  the  sun 
may  be  hot  at  mid-day  in  summer,  but  the  nights,  and  evening, 
and  morning,  are  always  cool  and  refreshing.  The  annual  range 
of  the  thermometer  is  only  from  fifty-five  to  sixty  degrees,  and 
cattle,  and  sheep,  except,  perhaps,  once  in  eight  or  ten  years,  can 
browse  throughout  the  entire  winter  without  shelter.  The  ab- 
sence of  trees  in  the  western  portion  of  this  plateau  also  modi- 
fies this  climate  to  some  extent,  making  the  summer’s  heat  more 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


59 

intense,  and  the  cold,  wintry  winds  more  searching,  and  far- 
reaching  in  their  effect.  The  changes  now  going  on,  all  along 
this  region,  as  the  result  of  breaking  up  the  hard  beaten  soil,  and 
planting  trees  in  great  numbers,  will  not  be  without  their  effect 
in  modifying  the  temperature ; and  by  the  interposition  of 
masses  of  timber,  breaking  the  fury  of  the  winds. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  apart  from  such  diseases  as  may 
be  induced  or  aggravated  by  a rarefied  atmosphere,  this  elevated 
region  is  more  healthful  than  any  other  on  our  continent.  There 
are  enough  who  die  from  natural  or  unnatural  causes,  but  the 
•dry,  pure,  invigorating  atmosphere  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  pla- 
teaux is  eminently  conducive  to  health,  especially  to  those  who 
are  suffering  from  pulmonary  diseases.  Still  to  reap  the  full 
benefit  of  this  climate,  the  health-seeker  must  stay  there.  A 
return  to  the  East  after  one,  or  two,  or  even  four  years  almost 
inevitably  brings  back  the  disease,  and  causes  it  to  prove  fatal. 

We  have  elsewhere  discussed  the  rainfall  of  most  portions  of 
this  vast  Western  Empire.  It  is  even  more  varied  in  quantity, 
in  different  districts,  than  is  the  climate  in  temperature.  The 
Northwest  coast,  in  Washington,  Oregon,  and  the  extreme  north- 
ern portion  of  California,  have,  at  some  points,  a more  copious 
rainfall  than  any  other  portion  of  the  United  States,  though  nearly 
approached  by  some  points  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  In  two  or 
three  places  in  the  States  and  Territory  named,  the  annual  pre- 
cipitation ranges  from  123  to  135  inches,  and  once  or  twice  has 
exceeded  even  the  latter  figure:  ten  or  eleven  feet  of  rainfall. 
At  San  Diego  on  the  same  coast,  but  nearly  1,000  miles  farther 
south,  the  rainfall  in  1876-77  was  but  3.80  inches;  and  at  Eort 
Yuma,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado,  in  1877-78,  but  2.00  inches. 
These  are  the  extremes.  On  the  Gulf  coast  in  Texas,  the  pre- 
cipitation is  large,  ranging  from  fifty-four  to  sixty-seven  inches.  In 
the  interior  the  amount  varies  with  the  longitude.  Erom  the  Mis- 
sissippi  river  to  about  the  97th  degree  of  west  longitude  it  ranges 
from  forty-five  inches  to  twenty-eight  inches,  diminishing  as  we 
proceed  westward.  Erom  this  meridian  to  about  117,  it  ranges 
from  twenty-five  inches  to  twelve  inches,  or  perhaps  1 1.5  in  some 
seasons.  . Farther  west  it  rises  to  thirty-three  inches,  and 


6o 


COMFA  RA  TI VE  RA  IN  FA  L L . 


between  the  Cascades  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  attains  at  some 
points  to  forty-two  inches.  Of  course  there  are  variations  from 
north  to  south  as  well  as  from  east  to  west ; variations  produced 
also  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  extensive  forests,  by  the  com- 
pactness of  the  soil,  owing  to  its  having  been  for  hundreds  of 
years  trodden  under  the  hoofs  of  millions  of  bisons,  or  its  porous- 
ness from  thorough  cultivation.  The  electrical  condition  of  the 
atmosphere  has  also  much  to  do  with  the  amount  of  precipitation. 
In  general  it  may  be  said  that  fully  two-thirds  of  the  arable  lands 
of  the  Great  West  have  a sufficient  amount  of  precipitation  to 
raise  any  desired  crops,  with  deep  plowing,  and  the  other  third, 
while  requiring  moderate  and  in  some  cases  very  thorough  irri- 
gation to  produce  the  largest  crops,  are  so  situated  as  to  be  able  at 
moderate  expense  to  obtain  all  the  water  needed  for  this  purpose, 
and  under  its  influence  yield  such  abundant  crops  as  to  pay,  in 
one  or  at  the  utmost  two  years,  the  cost  of  the  ditches.  Indeed 
the  proprietors  of  the  irrigated  lands  look  down  with  a half-con- 
temptuous pity  upon  the  poor  farmers  who  are  dependent  upon 
the  rainfall  alone  for  their  crops.  “ Poor  fellows,”  they  say, 
“ when  they  sow  their  grain  or  plant  their  crops,  they  can  never 
tell  what  will  befall  them : they  may  have  too  much  rain,  and 
their  crops  will  be  drowned  out,  or  rot  in  the  earth,  or  they  may 
not  have  enough,  and  their  fields  will  be  burned  by  the  fiery 
breath  of  the  sun  ; they  can  never  tell  whether  they  can  raise  a 
crop  or  not.  With  us,  now,  the  whole  matter  can  be  determined 
with  mathematical  exactness.  We  know  just  how  much  water  is 
needed  to  bring  the  land  to  its  highest  productiveness,  and  we 
give  it  just  that  much  and  no  more.  If  we  have  rains  we  irrigate 
less;  if  the  season  is  dry,  we  turn  on  more  water,  and  we  have 
a good  crop  every  year.”  As  the  vacillating  judge  said  : “ There 
is  a good  deal  to  be  said  on  both  sides  of  this  question.” 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  high  winds  which  prevail  over 
some  portions  of  this  vast  region  ; but  the  investigations  of  the 
Signal  Service  officers  have  in  a great  degree  systematized  our 
knowledge  on  this  subject.  On  the  Pacific  coast,  and  as  far  east- 
ward as  the  summit  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  or  Cascade  Mountains, 
and  possibly  for  a part  of  the  distance,  where  they  obtain  access 


OUR  VVESTERxW  EMPIRE. 


6 [ 

through  transverse  valleys  to  the  western  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  west  winds  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  laden  with 
moisture,  sweep  across  the  mountains  and  valleys,  depositing 
much  of  their  water  as  snow  upon  the  mountains.  These  are 
cool  but  not  cold  winds.  From  Hudson’s  Bay  and  the  ice-clad 
waters  of  the  north  comes  down,  especially  in  winter,  a cold, 
piercing  wind,  through  the  broad  valley  of  the  Red  river  of  the 
North,  producing  intense  cold  and  often  snows  on  the  plains,  and 
spending  much  of  its  fury  on  the  Mississippi  valley  and  States 
farther  east.  This  is  perhaps  the  source  of  the  Texas  Northers, 
though  the  severity  of  the  cold  has  been  much  diminished  before 
it  reaches  the  Gulf  coast.  East  winds  are  not  prevalent  in  any 
part  of  this  region,  and  when  they  do  occur  have  no  special 
character  or  significance.  A south  wind  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  is  much  more  frequent,  and  is  generally  a moist  and 
grateful  wind;  sometimes  in  the  summer  it  may  bring  with  it 
electrical  phenomena,  and  be  the  herald  of  destructive  cyclones. 
The  southwest  wind  which  sweeps  across  Arizona,  Western 
Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Southern  Utah,  and  Nevada,  affecting 
also  at  times  Western  Colorado  and  Wyoming,  is  from  Mexico, 
and  has  been  heated  in  its  passage  across  the  semi-tropical  lands 
of  Mexico  and  Central  America  till  it  blows  a hot  blast  over 
these  lands  which  intensifies  the  summer’s  heat,  though  it  may 
make  the  autumn  and  winter  milder.  As  the  country  becomes 
settled  and  cultivated,  this  hot  wind  will  lose  something  of  its 
intensity,  and  become  rather  an  agreeable  adjuvant  in  mitigating 
the  cold  of  the  wintry  months. 


62 


M/NIiYG  PROCESSES  FOR  GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

The  various  Processes  of  Mining— Placer  Mining — Gold  Discovery  in 
California — The  Pan — The  Rocker — The  Ditch  and  the  “Tom” — 
The  Sluice — Hydraulic  Mining — Hydraulic  Mining  not  aesthetic — 
Lode  or  Quartz  Mining — True  Fissure  Veins — The  “Country”  Rock 
— Chimneys,  Chimes,  or  Bonanzas — Pockets — Contact  Lodes — Gold 

COMBINED  with  SuLPHURETS StOPING — DePTH  OF  MlNES — ThE  REDUCTION 

OF  Pyritous  Ores — Gold  with  Oxide  of  Iron — Cost  of  Reduction  of  Gold 
— Discoveries  of  Silver  Ores — Silver  widely  diffused — Modes  of 
Reduction — The  best  Mining  Regions — Placer  Mining:  the  best 
Locations — Difficulties  of  Placer  Mining — Difficulties  of  Lode  or 
Vein  Mining — The  best  Mines  bought  up  by  Capitalists — The  best 
Locations  for  Experts. 

We  confine  our  attention  for  the  present  to  mining  for  gold 
and  silver,  including,  however,  the  ores  of  lead  and  copper 
and  perhaps  iron,  with  which  they  are  found  combined  or  com- 
mingled. Gold  mining  is  of  two  kinds,  and  each  kind  has  its 
several  processes.  These  two  kinds  are  mining,  and  Lode 

mining.  Silver  is  always  found  only  in  lodes,  but  these  are  of 
various  forms  or  combinations.  Placers  are  deposits  of  gold 
nearly  in  a pure  state,  which  at  some  time,  remote  or  recent,  have 
been  washed  out  of  the  veins  or  lodes  into  which  they  were 
injected  by  some  convulsion  of  nature,  by  the  long  continued 
action  of  running  water,  and  deposited  with  gravel  or  clay  on 
the  bed  rock  of  the  stream  which  bore  them  down  its  current. 
The  beds  of  most  of  the  streams  flowing  from  the  mountains, 
especially  if  they  have  cut  deep  channels  in  the  rocks  in  any 
portion  of  their  course,  were  found  to  contain  these  placers,  of 
greater  or  less  value;  but  the  placers  which  are  found  in  the 
beds  of  ancient  streams,  which  by  upheaval  or  change  of  course 
have  ceased  to  How,  and  are  perhaps  now  many  hundred  feet 
below  the  surface,  are  usually  more  productive  than  those  of 
more  recent  origin.  The  placer  gold  is  free  gold  ; that  is,  it  is 
uncombined  with  any  other  mineral,  and  may  exist  as  a powder, 
as  scales,  or  as  little  pellets  or  nuggets  of  considerable  size.  In 
California,  as  everywhere  else,  it  was  the  first  gold  discovered, 
and  thcj'c,  by  accident. 


A SECTION  OF  A MINE — HYDRAULIC  MINING, 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


63 

The  story  of  this  discovery  has  been  often  related ; but  the 
statement  made  by  the  late  Hon.  J.  Ross  Browne  in  1867,  when 
he  was  United  States  Mining  Commissioner,  is  believed  to  be  the 
only  one  which  gives  the  facts  as  they  were.  Mr.  Browne  says; 

“It  was  on  the  19th  day  of  January,  1848,  ten  days  before  the 
treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo  was  signed,  and  three  months 
before  the  ratified  copies  were  exchanged,  that  James  W.  Marshall, 
while  engaged  in  digging  a race  for  a saw-mill  at  Cbloma,  about 
thirty-five  miles  eastward  from  Sutter’s  Fort,  found  some  pieces 
of  yellow  metal,  which  he  and  the  half-dozen  men  working 
with  him  at  the  mill  supposed  to  be  gold.  He  felt  confident  that 
he  had  made  a discovery  of  great  importance,  but  he  knew 
nothing  of  either  chemistry  or  gold  mining,  so  he  could  not 
prove  the  nature  of  the  metal  or  tell  how  to  obtain  it  in  paying 
quantities.  Every  morning  he  went  down  to  the  race  to  look 
for  the  bits  of  the  metal;  but  the  other  men  at  the  mill  thought 
Marshall  was  very  wild  in  his  ideas,  and  they  continued  their 
labors  in  building  the  mill,  and  in  sowing  wheat,  and  planting 
vegetables.  The  swift  current  of  the  mill-race  washed  away  a 
considerable  body  of  earthy  matter,  leaving  the  coarse  particles 
of  gold  behind,  so  Marshall’s  collection  of  specimens  continued 
to  accumulate,  and  his  associates  began  to  think  there  might  be 
something  in  his  gold  mine  after  all.  About  the  middle  of 
February,  a Mr.  Bennett,  one  of  the  party  employed  at  the  mill, 
went  to  San  Francisco  for  the  purpose  of  learning  whether  this 
metal  was  precious,  and  there  he  was  introduced  to  Isaac 
Humphrey,  who  had  washed  for  gold  in  Georgia.  The 
experienced  miner  saw  at  a glance  that  he  had  the  true  stuff 
before  him,  and  after  a few  inquiries  he  was  satisfied  that  the 
diggings  must  be  rich.  He  made  immediate  preparation  to  go 
to  the  mill,  and  tried  to  persuade  some  of  his  friends  to  go  with 
him,  but  they  thought  it  would  be  only  a waste  of  time  and 
money,  so  he  went  with  Bennett  for  his  sole  companion. 

“He  arrived  at  Coloma  on  the  7th  of  March,  and  found  the 
work  at  the  mill  going  on  as  if  no  gold  existed  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. The  next  day  he  took  a pan  and  spade  and  washed  some 
of  the  dirt  from  the  bottom  of  the  mill-race  in  places  where 


64 


GOLD  DISCOVERY  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


Marshall  had  found  his  specimens,  and  in  a few  hours  Humphrey 
declared  that  these  mines  were  far  richer  than  any  in  Georgia. 

“He  now  made  a rocker,  and  went  to  work  washing  gold 
industriously,  and  every  day  yielded  him  an  ounce  or  two  of 
metal.  The  men  at  the  mill  made  rockers  for  themselves,  and 
all  were  soon  busy  in  search  of  the  yellow  metal. 

“ Everything  else  was  abandoned ; the  rumor  of  the  discovery 
spread  slowly.  In  the  middle  of  March,  Pearson  B.  Reading, 
the  owner  of  a large  ranch  at  the  head  of  the  Sacramento  valley, 
happened  to  visit  Sutter’s  Fort,  and  hearing  of  the  mining  at 
Coloma,  he  went  thither  to  see  it.  He  said  that  if  similarity  of 
formation  could  be  taken  as  proof,  there  must  be  gold  mines, 
near  his  ranch,  so  after  observing  the  method  of  washing,  he 
posted  off,  and  in  a few  weeks  he  was  at  work  on  the  bars  of 
Clear  creek,  nearly  two  hundred  miles  northwestward  from 
Coloma.  A few  days  after  Reading  had  left,  John  Bidwell, 
since  representative  of  the  northern  district  of  the  State  in  the 
lower  house  of  Congress,  came  to  Coloma,  and  the  result  of  his 
visit  was  that  in  less  than  a month  he  had  a party  of  Indiana; 
from  his  ranch  washing  gold  on  the  bars  of  Feather  river,  seventy- 
five  miles  northwestward  from  Coloma.  Thus  the  mines  were 
opened  at  far  distant  points.” 

On  the  29th  of  May,  1848,  the  only  paper  published  in  San 
Francisco  said:  “The  whole  country,  from  San  Francisco  to. 
Los  Anofeles,  and  from  the  sea-shore  to  the  base  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  resounds  with  the  sordid  cry  of  gold!  gold!  gold  I 
while  the  field  is  left  half  planted,  the  house  half  built,  and  every- 
thing neglected  but  the  manufacture  of  picks  and  shovels,  and 
the  means  of  transportation  to  the  spot  where  one  man  obtained 
$128  worth  of  the  real  stuff  in  one  day’s  washing;  and  the 
average  for  all  concerned  is  $20  per  diem.” 

“The  towns  and  farms  were  deserted,  or  left  to  the  care  of 
women  and  children,  while  rancheros,  wood-choppers,  mechanics, 
vaqueros,  and  soldiers  and  sailors,  who  had  deserted  or  obtained 
leave  of  absence,  devoted  all  their  energies  to  washing  the 
auriferous  gravel  of  the  Sacramento  basin.  Never  satisfied, 
however  much  they  might  be  making,  they  were  continually 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


65 


looking  for  new  placers  which  might  yield  them  twice  or  thrice 
as  much  as  they  had  made  before.  Thus  the  area  of  their  labors 
gradually  extended,  and  at  the  end  of  1848  miners  were  at  work 
in  every  large  stream  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
from  the  Feather  to  the  Tuolumne  river,  a distance  of  150  miles, 
and  also  at  Reading’s  diggings,  in  the  northwestern  corner  of 
the  Sacramento  valley.” 

For  the  first  two  years  the  miners  who  made  these  discoveries 
depended  for  their  profits  mainly  on  the  pan  and  the  rocker. 
The  placer  miner’s  pan  was  made  of  sheet-iron  or  tinned  iron, 
with  a flat  bottom  about  a foot  in  diameter,  and  sides  six  inches 
high,  inclining  outwards  at  an  angle  of  forty  or  fifty  degrees. 
The  gold  was  found,  as  it  usually  is,  in  a tough  clay  which 
enveloped  gravel  and  large  pebbles  as  well  as  sand.  This  clay 
must  be  thoroughly  dissolved  or  reduced  to  the  condition  of 
fluid  mud ; and  so  the  miner  filled  his  pan  with  it,  went  to  the 
bank  of  the  river  or  stream,  squatted  down  there,  put  his  pan 
under  water,  and  shook  it  horizontally,  so^  as  to  get  the  mass 
thoroughly  soaked ; then  picked  out  the  larger  stones  with  one 
hand  and  mashed  up  the  largest  and  toughest  lumps  of  clay,  and 
again  shook  his  pan  under  water,  and  when  all  the  dirt  seemed 
to  be  dissolved  so  that  the  gold  could  be  carried  to  the  bottom 
by  its  weight,  he  tilted  up  the  pan  a little  to  let  the  thin  mud  and 
light  sand  run  out,  repeating  this  process  till  all  was  washed  out 
except  the  metal  which  remained  at  the  bottom. 

After  a time  this  process  was  found  too  slow,  and  the  rocker  , 
took  its  place.  This  was  constructed  somewhat  like  a child’s 
cradle,  but  the  upper  end  was  considerably  higher  than  the 
lower,  and  contained  a large  riddle  or  colander  of  sheet-iron 
punched  with  holes  on  the  bottom  ; underneath  the  floor  of  the 
rocker  was  provided  with  cleats  or  riffles,  extending  nearly 
across,  to  catch  the  gold.  The  miner  filled  his  riddle  with  pay- 
dirt and  rocked  the  rocker  with  one  hand  while  he  poured  water 
upon  the  dirt  and  riddle  with  the  other.  The  water  and  the 
motion  dissolved  the  clay  and  carried  it  down  to  the  floor  of  the 
rocker,  where  the  cleats  caught  the  gold,  while  the  mud  and 
water  ran  off  The  riddle  could  be  taken  off  to  throw  out  the 
larger  stones. 


THE  ROCKER,  THE  TOM  AND  THE  SLUICE. 

Soon  the  rocker  was  abandoned  because  it  could  not  work 
fast  enough,  and  ditches  were  dug  and  flumes  constructed  to 
bring  the  water  from  a sufficient  height  to  do  the  washing-out 
of  the  clay  and  gravel  without  so  much  manual  labor  and  with 
more  abundant  production  ; some  of  these  flumes  were  very 
large  and  many  miles  in  extent,  and  erected  at  an  immense  cost. 
With  the  ditches  came  in  first  the  “Tom,”  which  had  previously 
been  used  in  Georgia:  a trough  twelve  feet  long,  eight  inches 
deep,  fifteen  inches  wide  at  the  head  and  thirty  at  the  foot ; a 
riddle  of  sheet-iron,  punched  with  holes  half  an  inch  in  diameter, 
formed  the  bottom  of  the  “Tom”  at  the  lower  end,  so  placed 
that  all  the  water  and  the  mud  should  fall  through  the  holes  of 
the  riddle,  and  none  pass  over  the  sides  or  end.  The  water  fell 
into  a flat  box  with  cleats  on  the  bottom,  giving  passage  at  alter- 
nate ends  to  the  mud  and  water,  while  the  gold  was  caught  on 
the  cleats  or  riffles.  A stream  of  water  ran  constantly  through 
the  “Tom,”  into  the  head  of  which  the  pay-dirt  was  thrown  by 
several  men,  while  one  threw  out  the  stones  too  large  to  pass 
the  riddle  and  threw  back  to  the  head  the  lumps  of  clay  which 
had  reached  the  foot  without  beingf  dissolved. 

The  “Tom”  was  succeeded  by  “the  Sluice,”  a board-trough 
from  a hundred  to  five  thousand  feet  'long,  having  a descent  of 
one  foot  in  twenty,  and  with  riffles  at  the  lower  end  to  catch  the 
gold.  Twenty  men  or  more  could  throw  in  the  pay-dirt  at  the 
upper  end,  and  the  water  in  its  long  and  rapid  course  would  tear 
the  lumps  to  pieces,  and  before  reaching  the  end  deposit  the  gold 
on  the  riffles,  from  which  it  is  taken  four  or  five  times  a day. 
Where  the  gold  was  in  fine  powder  or  scales,  quicksilver  was 
placed  on  the  riffles  to  form  an  instantaneous  amalgam,  and  thus 
very  much  of  the  gold  was  saved.  This  sluice  was  unquestion- 
ably the  most  efficient  and  successful  of  all  the  contrivances  in 
aid  of  placer-mining;  but  there  was  now  a new  difficulty,  or  a 
series  of  them,  to  be  overcome.  The  placers  in  the  river  and 
creek-beds  and  near  the  surface  of  gravel-beds,  were  beginning 
to  give  out ; in  many  places,  too,  these  placer-deposits  had  been 
traced  up  to  the  lodes  or  veins  in  the  rocks  which  had  been 
worn  down  by  the  water  of  the  stream,  and  which  had  thus  fur- 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


6; 

nished  the  placer-deposits.  It  was  discovered,  also,  that  there 
were,  in  many  places,  extensive  deposits  of  gold-bearing  gravel, 
hills  of  considerable  height  and  length,  which  had,  untold  ages 
before,  been  the  beds  of  rivers,  but  had  been  upheaved,  and 
were  now  rich  placers,  if  they  could  be  broken  down  and  the 
pay-dirt  run  through  the  sluices.  To  do  this  by  hand  labor  was 
too  costly  and  wearisome.  Even  now,  in  the  best  sluices  con- 
nected with  good  ditches,  the  labor  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  men 
in  a fair  placer-deposit,  was  not  sufficient  to  supply  the  sluice 
with  pay-dirt,  and  much  of  the  costly  water  ran  to  waste. 

The  remedy  for  these  difficulties  was  found  in  “hydraulic  min- 
ing.” The  sluice  was  enlarged,  and  its  upper  portion  expanded 
so  as  to  take  in  a width  of  perhaps  a hundred  feet  of  the  adjacent 
hill,  which  had  previously  been  found  to  contain  gold ; water  was 
supplied  to  it  from  a ditch  usually  with  a considerable  head,  and 
standing  at  a convenient  distance,  say  200  feet  or  more,  from 
the  face  of  the  hill,  a strong  miner  directed  upon  it  a stream  of 
water  from  a hose-pipe  or  nozzle  having  a diameter  of  three  to 
six  inches,  and  a head  of  two  or  three  hundred  feet.  The  effect 
of  this  continuous  stream  of  water  coming  with  such  force  must 
be  seen  to  be  appreciated ; wherever  it  struck  it  tore  away 
earth,  gravel  and  boulders ; if  the  pipe  was  directed  on  a point 
some  distance  below  the  surface  of  the  hill,  the  crust  above  it 
soon  fell,  and  one,  two  or  three  hundred  cubic  yards  of  earth 
were  washed  into  the  sluice  in  a single  day.  Bars  were  placed 
across  the  sluice  to  arrest  and  turn  off  the  larger  stones  and 
boulders,  and  four  or  five  men  could  accomplish  more  and  gain 
•larger  returns  than  four  or  five  hundred  by  the  old  processes. 

This  process  of  washing  down  the  hills  has  been  continued,  and 
is  still  in  progress  in  many  portions  of  the  gold-bearing  regions 
of  the  Great  West.  Sometimes  the  clay  which  binds  together 
the  gold-bearing  gravel  and  sand  is  too  tough  and  compact  to 
be  broken  down  even  by  the  force  of  the  hydraulic  stream ; then 
the  miner  tunnels  the  hill  at  its  base  and  introduces  an  immense 
charge  of  gunpowder,  giant-powder,  gun-cotton,  dynamite  or 
nitro-glycerine,  which,  when  exploded,  breaks  up  the  tough  clay 
and  renders  the  hitherto  difficult  task  of  the  hydraulic  pipe  easy 


68 


HYDRAULIC  MINING. 


and  swift.  By  this  process  of  hydraulic  mining  the  gold  produc- 
tion has  been  largely  maintained  at  nearly  its  old  standard,  and 
millions  of  dollars  worth  of  gold  bullion  have  been  put  upon  the 
market.  The  ordinary  placer  mining  is  nearly  at  an  end,  except 
at  some  of  the  newer  points.  It  is  still  conducted,  to  some  ex- 
tent, in  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  in  portions  of  Wyoming,  and  in 
the  Black  Hills ; but  hydraulic  mining  is  now  practised  wherever 
the  ancient  deposits  of  gold  in  gravel  can  be  found,  and  water 
with  a sufficient  head  can  be  obtained. 

Hydraulic,  or  even  sluice  mining  is  not  an  aesthetic  pursuit; 
the  regions  where  it  is  practised  may  be,  before  the  miner  s ad- 
vent, like  the  garden  of  the  Lord  for  beauty;  but  after  his  work 
is  completed,  they  bear  no  resemblance  to  anything,  except  the 
chaos  which  greeted  the  eye  of  the  seer  at  the  dawn  of.  the 
Mosaic  record  of  the  rehabilitation  of  the  earth  for  the  use  of 
man, — “without  form  and  void  ” — ''Tohu  e bohu' — “the  line  of 
confusion  and  the  stones  of  emptiness.”  It  is  impossible  to  con- 
ceive of  anything  more  desolate,  more  utterly  forbidding,  than  a 
region  which  has  been  subjected  to  this  hydraulic  mining  treat- 
ment; boulders  of  all  sizes  are  scattered  over  the  surface,  and 
around  them  coarse  gravel,  incapable  of  sustaining  vegetation  ; 
the  streams  are  filled  up  with  a fine  clay,  and  very  possibly  over- 
flow their  banks,  producing  dreary  marshes,  and  the  whole  vista 
is  one  of  extreme  desolation  and  ruin. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  tracing  up  of  the  gold  deposits 
of  the  placers  to  the  lodes  or  veins  from  which  they  had  been 
washed  out ; let  us  now  turn  to  these  veins  or  lodes,  and  ascer- 
tain what  were  the  processes  by  which  the  precious  metal  was 
extracted  from  them,  or,  in  other  words,  how  lode,  or,  as  it  is 
often  called,  quartz  mining  is  conducted. 

And,  first,  of  the  vein  or  lode.  Where  this  contains  gold  (and 
it  is  of  gold  mining  we  are  now  speaking),  it  is  almost  always 
a vein  of  quartz,  and  usually  of  the  milky  opaque  kind,  scarcely 
showing  any  signs  of  crystallization.  It  is  often  found  in  slate, 
sometimes  in  porphyritic  rock.  The  quartz  is  sometimes  very 
hard,  sometimes  soft  and  crumbling;  it  may  show  the  gold,  if  that 
is  in  particles  of  considerable  size,  but  where  it  is  in  fine  grains,, 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


69 

it  frequently  does  not  show  it  at  all.  The  gold  is  very  irreg- 
ularly distributed  in  the  quartz,  some  portions  being  largely 
charged  with  it,  while  again,  for  long  distances,  the  quartz  vein 
is  entirely  barren  of  gold.  Sometimes  the  vein  contains  rounded 
pebbles,  or,  as  Eastern  men  would  say , cobble-stones,  of  large 
size,  of  very  hard  quartz,  containing  no  gold,  but  bridging  or 
plugging  the  vein.  These  are  generally  surrounded  by  soft, 
sometimes  crumbling,  quartz,  which  usually  contains  some  gold. 
They  are  called  by  the  miners  “boulder  veins.”  Sometimes  the 
course  of  the  vein  is  blocked  by  a mass  of  porphyry  or  hard 
slate,  which  completely  stops  the  miner’s  progress  until  it  is  cut 
through,  and  it  may  extend  for  several  feet  or  yards.  This  is 
called  by  the  miners  a “horse.” 

A true  fissure  vein  is  one  which  is  formed  by  the  filling  up  of 
a crack  or  fissure  in  the  harder  rocks  (occasioned  by  earthquake, 
upheaval,  or  in  some  other  way)  with  conglomerate,  quartz  and 
other  matters,  into  which  gold,  either  free  or  in  combination  with 
other  metals  or  minerals,  has  been  injected  at  intervals,  in  a fluid 
state.  The  width  of  the  vein  is  the  width  of  the  crack  or  fissure; 
its  length,  the  length  to  which  the  fissure  extends  within  a mod- 
erate distance  of  the  surface ; its  depth  may  be  limited  by  the 
depth  of  the  stratum  in  which  it  occurs,  but  more  generally  ex- 
tends far  lower  than  any  mining  excavations  can  reach.  The 
fissures  and  the  veins  are  found  at  all  conceivable  angles  or  dips. 
Rarely  they  are  found  nearly  horizontal,  but  this  though  at  first 
a seeming  advantage,  is  hardly  a real  one,  inasmuch  as  from 
the  nearly  level  character  of  the  land  adjacent  there  will  be  great 
difficulty  eventually  in  freeing  the  lower  levels  of  the  mine  from 
the  water  which  accumulates.  Often  the  dip  of  the  fissure  and 
the  strata  adjacent  is  at  an  angle  of  twenty,  thirty,  forty,  or  fifty 
degrees  with  the  surface;  sometimes  it  is  even  perpendicular; 
and  where  the  angle  is  considerable  and  the  vein  or  lode  is  first 
discovered  on  a hillside  or  near  its  summit,  a tunnel  run  at  a 
much  lower  level,  so  as  to  strike  the  vein,  affords  the  best  means 
of  draininor  it. 

O 

Not  only  does  the  fissure  dip  at  very  various  angles,  but  it 
may  penetrate  the  harder  rocks  at  any  angle  varying  from  the 


70 


TRUE  FISSURE  VEINS  OR  LODES. 


perpendicular,  so  that  the  entire  vein  may  enter  the  rocks  in  a 
slanting  direction,  and  the  walls  of  slate  or  porphyry  which  en- 
close the  vein,  and  are  called  in  miners’  parlance  ‘‘  country  rock,” 
may  slope  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  or  be  even  nearly 
horizontal  in  position,  while  they  have  at  the  same  time  the 
downward  trend  of  the  rocky  stratum  to  which  they  belong. 

The  true  fissure  vein  may  have,  and  the  best  veins  often  do 
have,  chimneys,  chutes,  bonanzas,  or  branch  fissures,  generally 
connecting  with  the  main  vein  or  lode  on  its  upper  side,  at  an 
angle  of  from  thirty  to  forty-five  degrees,  which  may  be  richer 
in  gold  than  the  main  vein.  These  chutes  or  chimneys  often 
extend  downward  into  the  true  or  main  vein,  and  are  thought  to 
determine  in  part  its  value.  The  mining  geologists  think  that 
they  were  deposited  much  as  soot  is  in  a chimney,  the  gold  being 
in  a fluid  or  gaseous  condition  at  the  time. 

Gold  as  well  as  silver  is  sometimes  found  in  considerable 
quantities  in  pockets,  or  small  cavities  in  the  rocks,  and  these, 
which  are  sometimes  of  moderate  extent,  may  yield  a fortune  to 
one  or  two  men  ; but  these  pockets  are  seldom  connected  with 
a true  fissure  vein,  and  when  once  exhausted,  are  not  of  any 
value,  even  as  indications  of  the  presence  of  fissure  veins  or 
lodes  in  the  vicinity. 

It  was  supposed  previous  to  1877,  experience  of  cen- 

turies in  mining  for  gold  and  silver  had  developed  all  the  modes 
in  which  the  precious  metals  or  their  ores,  were  deposited  in  the 
earth,  to  be  brought  out  for  the  use  of  man.  The  placer  mines, 
and  the  veins  or  lodes,  the  true  fissure  veins,  as  they  were  called, 
were  reckoned  the  only  methods  by  which,  in  the  processes  of 
nature,  large  quantities  of  these  metals  or  ores  were  deposited. 
There  might  be,  indeed,  pockets  and  chimneys  of  nearly  pure 
metal,  which,  when  the  miner  stumbled  upon  them,  would  add 
greatly  to  his  profits  so  long  as  they  lasted  ; but  these  were  only 
incidents  or  accidents,  not  to  be  taken  .into  account  in  scientific 
mining.  It  was  reserved  for  the  opening  of  mines  of  silver  and 
gold  at  Leadville,  and  subsequently  at  other  points  in  the  San 
Juan  and  Gunnison  districts,  and  probably  also  in  Utah,  to  bring 
to  light  two  discoveries  which  are  of  the  greatest  importance  to 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


7T 

miners  and  holders  of  mining  property.  The  first  and  most 
obvious  one  was  that  silver,  and  to  some  extent  also  gold,  in 
combination  with  lead,  existed  in  large  quantities  and  very  rich 
ores,  in  other  forms  than  the  argentiferous  galena  or  sulphuret, 
and  that  sulphur  was  not  a necessary  accompaniment  of  silver 
and  gold  ores,  whether  in  combination  with  lead,  zinc,  copper,  or 
iron.  The  carbonates  of  lead,  etc.,  have  proved  the  most  produc- 
tive of  combinations.  The  second  discovery  was  still  more 
important,  and  is  only  just  beginning  to  be  understood:  it  is, 
that  the  deposits  of  ore  need  not  be  in  fissure  veins,  or  lodes,  in 
placers,  in  pockets,  or  in  chimneys ; but  that  there  is  another 
form,  perhaps  as  productive,  and  certainly  more  easily  worked 
— that  of  “ contact  lodes','  by  which  are  meant  deposits  of  silver 
ore,  spread  with  a considerable  thickness  over  the  surface  of  a 
stratum  of  rock,  and  following  it  in  all  its  sinuosities  and  its  dip 
over  a great  extent.  Unlike  the  fissure  veins,  these  are  not  of 
great  depth,  though  sometimes  they  occur  in  two  or  three  layers 
with  the  strata  of  sandstone  or  limestone  between.  These  con- 
tact lodes  generally  occur  in  cavernous  limestone  or  sandstone. 

As  we  have  already  intimated,  gold  is  found  in  the  lodes, 
either  free — i.  e.,  pure  or  nearly  so,  or  combined  with  sulphurets 
of  iron,  copper,  lead  or  zinc,  in  the  form  of  pyrites.  Its  treat- 
ment after  it  comes  from  the  mine  differs  somewhat  in  the  two 
cases.  The  amount  of  gold  in  the  quartz  is  often  very  small — 
smaller  one  hundred  feet  below  the  surface  than  near  the  surface; 
but,  except  in  the  barren  portions  of  the  vein,  not  diminishing  or 
increasing  very  greatly  in  the  lowest  levels  which  have  been 
reached  (and  some  of  these  exceed  3,000  feet,  or  three-fifths  of  a 
mile).  Quartz  or'ore  which  will  assay  twenty-three  or  four  dol- 
lars per  ton,  and  which  yields  after  being  put  through  the  stamp 
batteries  and  the  amalgamating  process  eighteen  dollars  per  ton, 
is  regarded  as  very  good.  Not  over  one-fourth  of  the  gold  mines 
exceed  this,  and  very  many  fall  below  it,  and  are  yet  worked  at 
a moderate  profit. 

The  mining  and  reducing  processes  are  these  : A lode  or  vein 
having  been  traced  out  which  bears  evidence  of  being  a true  fis- 
sure vein,  and  the  claim  (1,500  feet  in  length,  and  300  in  width, 


72 


MINING  AND  REDUCING  PROCESSES. 


being  the  general  extent  of  a single  claim)  being  duly  entered,  the 
mine-owner  begins  operations  by  sinking  a shaft  in  the  line  of 
the  vein  to  ascertain  its  quality,  and,  when  the  shaft  is  down  fifty 
or  a hundred  feet,  running  an  adit  or  level  along  the  course  of 
the  vein  to  ascertain  its  quality  at  that  depth  ; sometimes  a winze 
is  cut, — two  adits  at  different  levels  cutting  across  the  vein  or 
veins  at  levels  fifty  feet  apart,  and  connected  with  each  other  at 
their  further  extremity  by  a shaft  which  does  not  rise  to  the  sur- 
face. Sometimes,  if  the  shaft  is  on  the  top  or  side  of  a hill,  a 
tunnel  is  run  to  it  from  the  base  of  the  hill  for  the  purposes  of 
drainage,  ventilation  and  the  more  easy  transportation  of  the  ore. 
If  on  the  examination  of  the  quartz,  or  ore  taken  from  the  vein 
at  this  depth,  the  promise  of  success  is  good,  additional  capital 
is  enlisted,  and  the  shaft  is  constructed  to  a greater  depth,  levels 
or  adits  run  at  different  levels  and  of  considerable  length,  rails 
put  down  on  the  levels,  steam-hoisting  machinery  set  up  at 
the  mouth  of  the  shaft,  pumping  machinery  put  in  to  relieve 
the  mine  of  the  accumulation  of  water  (which  is  often  very  hot — 
as  high  as  154°  F.  in  some  of  the  Nevada  mines),  and  stoping, 
either  overhand  or  underhand,  commenced,  especially  if  the  vein 
or  veins  dip  at  an  angle  of  40°  or  50°.  Stoping  is  the  break- 
ing out  with  a pickaxe  the  quartz  of  the  vein,  and  letting  it  fall 
on  the  level  ready  to  be  hoisted  by  the  machinery.  If  the  miner 
stands  at  his  work  and  brings  down  the  quartz  from  the  vein  at 
the  level  of  his  breast  or  above,  it  is  called  “overhand  stoping;” 
if  he  picks  it  from  about  his  feet  or  below  and  stoops,  sits  or 
crouches  at  his  work,  and  the  masses  thus  broken  out  fall  to 
the  level  below,  it  is  “underhand  stoping.” 

This  mining,  if  profitable,  may  be  extended  to  as  great  a depth 
as  may  be  desired,  the  only  checks  upon  it  being,  the  great  ex- 
pense of  the  pumping  apparatus  at  considerable  depths,  and  the 
difficulty  of  freeing  the  mine  from  water;  the  more  than  torrid 
temperature  in  the  deep  mines,  and  the  time  and  expense  of 
hoisting  the  ores  from  such  great  depths.  By  a tunnel  like  the 
Sutro  tunnel,  the  water  can  be  carried  off  at  moderate  expense, 
the  heat  greatly  mitigated  by  free  ventilation,  and  the  ores 
h.oisted  and  brought  to  the  surface  at  a much  lower  cost;  but 
such  tunnels  are  exceedingly  expensive. 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


73 


The  ore  broken  out  and  hoisted  to  the  surface  is  now  ready 
for  reduction.  If  the  masses  are  of  large  size  they  are  at  first 
put  through  the  rock-breaker,  which  reduces  them  to  the  size  of 
a goose-egg;  they  are  next  conducted  to  the  stamp-batteries  or 
stamp-mill,  where  they  are  fed  into  the  stamping-machine,  a 
cylindrical  machine,  whose  walls  are  of  hardened  chilled  iron, 'its 
floor  or  mortar  of  the  hardest  steel,  and  a solid  mass  of  chilled 
iron  faced  with  hard  steel,  of  cylindrical  form,  descends  with  a 
twisting  motion  upon  the  quartz,  grinding  and  crushing  it  to 
powder — the  inner  surface  of  the  cylinder  is  coated  generally 
with  quicksilver,  and  the  powdered  quartz  mingled  with  water  in 
the  stamping-machine,  flows  out  upon  amalgamated  copper 
plates,  which  have  a sufficient  extent  to  catch  the  larger  part  of 
the  gold  particles.  The  stamping-machine  is  cleaned  out  at 
frequent  intervals,  and  the  plates  have  their  coating  of  amalgam 
removed,  the  superfluous  quicksilver  is  squeezed  out  through 
buckskin,  and  the  remainder  expelled  by  heat,  the  sublimed 
quicksilver  being  recovered  for  future  use.  The  gold  remains  a 
spongy  mass,  but  is  melted  and  cast  in  the  form  of  an  ingot. 

This  is  the  improved  process  of  to-day,  the  result  of  twenty- 
five  years  of  experiment  and  invention.  By  this  process  about 
seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  gold  is  saved,  whereas  with  the 
ruder  processes  of  the  arastra  and  the  earlier  stamp-mills,  only 
from  sixteen  to  forty  per  cent,  of  the  gold  was  secured;  and  the 
working  over  of  the  tailings  of  the  arastras  and  of  the  long 
Toms,  and  early  sluices,  by  Chinese  miners,  yielded  them  a very 
profitable  harvest  of  gold.  A new  process  has  recently  been 
devised,  which,  bringing  galvanic  action  to  bear  upon  the  masses 
of  ore  of  the  size  of  a goose-egg,  reduces  them  to  a state  of  dis- 
integration, rendering  the  stamp-mills  unnecessary  and  causing 
the  lumps  to  crumble  upon  mere  pressure,  sets  the  entire  gold  in 
the  ore  free  instantly,  and  thus  dispensing  with  much  costly  ma- 
chinery, at  the  same  time  greatly  increases  the  gold  production. 

If,  as  was  largely  the  case  in  Colorado  and  to  some  extent  in 
some  of  the  other  States  and  Territories,  the  gold  was  combined 
with  the  sulphurets,  and  came  from  the  mine  as  pyrites,  it  was, 
either  before  or  after  being  put  into  the  rock-breaker,  roasted  to 


74 


MINING  AND  REDUCING  PROCESSES. 


expel  the  sulphur,  which  prevented  amalgamation.  This  is  now 
done  at  some  mills  in  the  open  air,  at  others  in  furnaces.  When 
roasted  it  is  reduced  to  powder  under  water  in  the  stamp-mills, 
amalgamated  in  the  mortars,  passed  over  the  amalgamated  cop- 
per plates,  and  beyond  these  made  to  flow  over  rough,  thick, 
hairy,  woollen  blankets,  which  catch  a considerable  quantity  of 
the  gold  which  is  saved  by  repeated  washings ; the  stream  of 
water,  still  thick  with  the  powdered  quartz,  falls  into  tanks  called 
huddling  tanks,  where  it  settles,  and  from  the  lower  portion  of 
the  huddled  tailings,  a dollar  or  two  more  of  gold  is  extracted. 
By  a process  invented  by  T.  A.  Edison,  the  electrician,  these 
huddled  tailings  are  made  to  yield  up  a large  and  profitable 
residue  of  the  gold  hitherto  wasted. 

In  the  Black  Hills,  Dakota,  the  gold  is  largely  combined  or 
encrusted  with  oxide  of  iron,  and  requires  a somewhat  different- 
treatment,  to  free  it  from  the  iron,  which  prevents  the  gold  from 
amalgamating,  and  requires  the  patient  labor  of  the  Chinese  to 
extract  that  which  remains  in  the  tailings.  This  oxide  of  iron,  in 
the  placer  deposits,  coats  over  the  gold  and  gravel  and  forms  a 
dense  and  firm  cement,  sometimes  of  great  extent,  which  cannot 
be  washed  out  in  the  sluice-boxes,  but  requires  to  be  put  through 
the  stamp  batteries  like  the  quartz  from  the  lodes.  The  gold 
mines  of  the  Black  Hills  are  so  situated,  far  up  on  the  hills,  that 
the  ore  can  be  carried  directly  into  the  stamp-mills  by  chutes, 
and  hence,  though  the  gold  ores  are  of  low  grade,  averaging  not 
more  than  ^lo  or  $12  per  ton,  the  cost  of  reduction  is  so  small, 
ranging  from  $1.80  to  $4.50  per  ton,  that  the  profit  oh  these 
uniform  low  grade  ores  is  better  than  is  obtained  on  ores  of 
higher  grade,  which  cost  more  for  reduction. 

Where  the  ores  contain  gold  and  silver  in  combination  with 
copper,  lead,  or  zinc,  and  sulphur,  a more  active,  expensive  and 
protracted  treatment  is  necessary ; but  this  belongs  rather  to  sil- 
ver than  gold-mining.  Where  the  raw  amalgamation  and  wet 
crushing  process  described  above  is  all  that  is  necessary,  gold 
can  be  reduced  from  the  quartz  for  from  ^3  to  ^5  per  ton,  and 
thus,  unless  the  transportation  is  too  expensive,  it  is  possible  to 
reduce  low  grade  ores,  those  containing  from  ^15  to  ^,20  of  gold 
8 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


75 

to  the  ton,  and  maKC  a fair  profit  on  the  business.  The  plant  or 
first  cost  of  a stamp-mill  of  five,  ten,  or  even  twenty  stamps  is 
not  now  so  great,  as  to  deter  the  owners  of  a good  mine  from 
setting  it  up  ; or  if  it  is  the  property  of  parties  who  are  not 
miners  but  who  understand  their  business,  two  or  three  mines 
of  moderate  size  can  keep  it  constantly  employed.  By  this  pro- 
cess, while  from  seventy  to  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  gold  is 
saved,  much,  generally  all,  of  the  silver  is  lost,  and  the  whole  of 
the  copper,  lead  and  zinc. 

Silver  was  first  discovered,  in  any  considerable  quantity,  in  these 
States  and  Territories,  in  Nevada  in  1857  by  the  Grosh  brothers  ; 
but  owing  to  its  being  largely  combined  with  gold,  and  the 
death  of  the  discoverers  soon  after,  the  discovery  was  not 
prosecuted  at  first  very  vigorously.  In  June,  1859,  the  first 
great  discovery  of  silver  was  made  on  apart  of  what  is  now  known 
as  the  Comstock  lode,  the  grounds  of  the  Ophir  Mining  Company. 
Peter  O’Reilly  and  Patrick  McLaughlin  were  the  discoverers, 
but  as  the  land  was  claimed  by  Kirby  and  others,  they  employed 
Henry  Comstock  to  purchase  the  land.  Comstock  negotiated 
at  the  same  time  one  or  two  other  claims,  and  finally  purchased 
the  whole  tract,  to  which  he  gave  his  name,  but  appreciated  its 
value  so  little,  that  he  sold  it  for  a few  thousand  dollars,  and 
regarded  himself  as  havinof  made  an  excellent  bargain.  From  that 
Comstock  lode  or  vein,  more  than  three  hundred  millions  of 
dollars  have  been  taken  since  that  time — a period  of  twenty 
years. 

Silver  is  found  in  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  different  systems  of 
rocks  forming  the  crust  of  the  earth,  from  Azoic  to  Tertiary.  Like 
the  gold  and  gold  ores,  it  is  found  only  in  veins,  though  these  are 
sometimes  of  great  width,  the  Comstock  lode  varying  from 
twenty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet."^  The  depth  of  these  veins, 
like  those  of  the  gold,  has  never  been  ascertained,  but  it  is  known 
in  some  cases  to  exceed  2,650  feet.  The  ores  contain  the  silver 
in  various  conditions  and  combinations.  In  Nevada,  it  is  com- 

* Since  the  partial  failure  of  these  veins,  and  the  discovery  of  contact  lodes  at  Leadville,  the 
idea  is  gaining  ground  that  a part  of  the  deposits  of  the  Comstock,  and  especially  those  veins 
a hundred  and  fifty  feet  wide,  may  be  contact  lodes. 


76  SILVER  MINING  AND  REDUCTION. 

bined  with  a certain  proportion  of  gold,  and  is  found  as  a 
sulphuret  of  silver  and  lead  (argentiferous  galena),  a sulphuret 
of  silver  and  copper  (copper  pyrites),  of  zinc,  and  combined 
with  sulphurets  of  iron,  antimony,  tellurium  and  other  base 
metals ; as  native  or  virgin  silver  ; as  chloride  of  silver  or  horn 
silver;  as  a richly  argentiferous  carbonate  of  lead,  copper,  zinc 
or  iron,  and  in  yet  other  combinations,  which  can  only  be  reduced 
by  long  and  tedious  labor  and  at  great  expense. 

A large  proportion  of  the  silver  from  the  mines  on  the  Com- 
stock lode  can  be  reduced  by  the  dry  stamping  and  amalgamating 
process.  These  are  those  in  which  the  percentage  of  lead  is 
small  and  that  of  gold  large.  In  these  cases  the  lead  is  lost,  but 
the  reduction  costs  only  from  four  to  five  dollars  a ton.  Ores 
containing  more  lead,  or  copper,  zinc,  etc.,  are  variously  treated 
by  roasting,  smelting,  treating  with  copper,  iron,  or  “ lead  riches,” 
mixing  with  salt  to  change  the  sulphurets  into  chlorides, 
chlorodizing,  leaching,  melting  in  a reverbatory  furnace,  etc. 
The  ores  of  Colorado  are  partly  sulphurets  and  partly  carbonates, 
and  In  some  of  them  there  is  a large  amount  of  native  silver. 
The  Utah  ores  are  very  largely  chlorides  or  chlorides  and 
sulphurets,  with  some  “horn”  or  native  silver;  some  of  the 
California  ores  of  more  recent  discovery  are  carbonates.  Those 
of  Montana  are  mostly  sulphurets,  but  mingled  with  such  a 
variety  of  base  metals  and  In  such  a condition  that  the  reduction 
is  effected  with  great  difficulty.  Indeed  until  the  recent 
establishment  of  the  Alta  Montana  mill  and  works  at  Wickes, 
most  of  the  ores  from  the  Montana  mines  have  been  only  con- 
centrated, and  sent  out  of  the  Territory  for  reduction.  The 
Alta  mill  concentrates,  and  employs  seven  or  eight  different 
processes  of  reduction,  all  of  them  expensive  and  requiring 
costly  and  complicated  machinery.  Ores  are  reduced  by  these 
processes  at  a cost  of  from  ^15.75  to  ^50,  so  that  low  grade  ores 
do  not  pay  for  mining.  If  they  contain  much  of  the  base  metals. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  occupy  our  pages  with  minute  description 
of  these  various  processes,  or  the  machinery  constructed  for 
them.  They  can  only  be  worked  by  experts,  and  the  great 
competition  for  business  In  the  numerous  reduction  establish- 
ments secures  the  miner  against  exorbitant  prices. 


OUR  WESJ'ERN  EMPIRE. 


77 


It  is  difficult  to  say  which  are  absolutely  the  best  mining  regions. 
There  are  advantages  and  disadvantages  about  them  all,  to  the 
practical  miner  or  the  resident  mine-owner.  In  those  mines 
which  have  been  established  from  fifteen  to  twenty-hve  years,  like 
many  of  those  in  California  and  Nevada,  the  shares  are  high 
priced,  if  the  mines  continue  to  be  valuable  ; the  depth  of  the 
mines  is  so  great,  and  the  danger  of  the  accumulation  of  water 
so  constant,  that  the  expenses  are  enormous,  and  large  as  the 
dividends  are,  the  assessments  made  on  the  shares  for  improve- 
ments nearly  equal,  and  in  some  cases  exceed  all  the  declared 
profits.  There  are,  indeed,  all  the  appliances  of  civilization,  and 
the  miner  or  mine-owner  is  not  subjected  to  the  hardships  and 
privations,  from  which  those  suffer  who  attempt  to  open  mines 
in  a new  country.  Placer  mining  is  best  adapted  to  the  young 
and  enterprising  miner  who  has  little  or  no  capital.  He  needs 
at  the  outset  only  his  tin  or  iron  pan,  his  pick  and  shovel  and 
perhaps  a little  quicksilver,  and  his  haversack  of  provisions — 
yes,  besides  these  he  needs  sufficient  knowledge  of  mining  to 
know  where  he  will  be  likely  to  find  a place  with  a moderately 
rapid  stream  of  water  at  hand,  and  when  found,  to  determin(i 
whether  it  will  pay  for  working,  or  whether  its  best  pay  streaks 
have  already  been  worked  over.  Even  if  his  gains  are  but 
moderate  at  first,  they  will  increase  under  favoring  circumstances, 
till  he  can  substitute  the  “Tom”  for  his  pan,  and  the  sluice  for 
the  “Tom,”  and  employing  help  can  increase  his  income  rapidly. 
But  placer  mining  is,  in  its  nature,  very  uncertain.  The  miner 
may  come  upon  barren  spots  where  there  is  no  pay-dirt,  and  his 
little  hoard  is  fast  becoming  exhausted  ; or,  which  is  worse,  he 
may  come  to  the  end  of  the  placer,  or,  as  in  the  Black  Hills,  may 
find  it  a hard  lava-like  mass,  agglutinated  and  firmly  cemented 
together  by  the  oxide  of  iron,  which  he  cannot  wash  away  nor 
pulverize,  and  hence,  like  the  tramp,  he  is  obliged  to  move  on. 
Meantime  his  life  is  of  the  hardest  and  roughest,  his  dwelling  is 
either  a dug-out  in  the  side  of  a hill,  or  a sod-hut,  reared  and 
roofed  by  his  own  unskilful  hands;  his  food  is  hard,  coarse,  and 
badly  cooked,  for  he  cooks  it  himself,  as  best  he  can  ; he  is  much 
of  the  time  in  wet  clothing,  in  his  work  of  washing  the  gold  * 


THE  MINER'S  CHANCES  OF  SUCCESS. 


78 

without  society,  without  books,  without  a Sabbath  or  any  reli- 
gious privileges.  After  a longer  or  shorter  time,  the  placer  gives 
out,  and  he  must  find  another.  What  he  has  saved  of  his  gains 
he  has,  but  there  is  no  right,  no  claim,  to  be  disposed  of ; he  can 
only  pull  up  stakes,  and  begin  again.  For  placer  mining  the 
Black  Hills,  Western  Colorado,  Montana,  and  perhaps  some  por- 
tions of  Wyoming,  and  Idaho,  Oregon,  and  Washington  Terri- 
tory, offer  the  best  locations. 

For  lode  or  vein  mining  more  capital  is  needed  for  success ; 
and  a practical  knowledge  of  mining  is  almost  indispensable.  It 
makes  little  difference  whether  the  miner  seeks  a gold  or  silver 
lode;  he  must  be  sure  of  these  four  things:  that  he  is  not  on 
land  already  claimed  by  anybody ; that  any  apparent  vein  he 
may  discover  is  a true  fissure-vein,  and  not  a placer-deposit,  nor 
a mere  pocket ; that  the  dip  of  the  vein  is  such  as  to  permit 
its  successful  working ; and  that  the  ores  are  of  a sufficiently 
high  grade  to  pay  the  costs  of  reduction  and  leave  a small  mar- 
gin of  profit.  Here  again  the  privations  in  the  mode  of  living 
come  in,  and  unless  the  miner  has  considerable  capital,  he  is  lia- 
ble to  see  his  money  and  his  hard  toil  both  go  for  little  or  noth- 
ing, and  the  great  rewards  for  which  he  hoped,  pass  into  the 
pockets  of  some  one  who  has  more  money  but  less  brains  than 
himself ; when  he  has  reached  the  end  of  his  means,  and  is 
obliged  to  sell  at  any  price  which  the  avarice  of  the  buyer  will 
prompt  him  to  give.  • 

If  he  can  hold  out  and  hold  on,  and  enlist  sufficient  capital  to 
assist  in  the  full  development  of  his  mine,  there  is  a fortune 
before  him,  but  in  all  the  mining  regions  there  are  not  two  dozen 
well-developed  mines,  of  which  the  original  discoverers  are  still 
proprietors.  Most  of  these  mines  have  from  ^150,000  to 
$5,000,000  or  more  invested,  and  even  these  gigantic  capitals  do 
not  always  yield  a profit.  In  California,  Nevada,  Utah,  and 
even  in  the  newer  mines  of  Colorado,  Montana,  and  the  Black 
Hills,  capitalists  stand  ready  to  gobble  up  any  promising  mines, 
paying  always  the  lowest  prices  at  which  they  can  be  bought, 
but  developing  them  as  speedily  as  possible,  by  a lavish  expen- 
diture for  machinery  and  appliances,  and  by  sinking  lower  levels 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

/ 9 

in  the  mines.  In  Nevada  the  bonanza  kings  own  all  the  best 
mines,  and  work  them  together  or  separately.  In  Colorado  a 
group  of  millionnaires,  or  rather,  as  “Josh  Billings”  would  put  it, 
ten-millionnaires,  have  obtained  control  of  all  the  richest  mines 
around  Leadville  ; in  the  Black  Hills  one  gigantic  California  firm 
own  all  the  valuable  mines  on  the  great  Belt  near  Deadwood, 
and  stand  ready  to  purchase  any  other  promising  mine.  In 
Utah  and  Montana  Eastern  capitalists  control  the  largest  mines. 

For  the  skilful  mining  engineer,  or  the  intelligent  practical 
miner,  if  he  prefers  gold  mining,  the  Black  Hills,  Colorado,  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona  offer  the  best  fields,  and  perhaps  Oregon 
and  Washington  Territory  furnish  some  good  opportunities  for 
industrious  and  skilful  men.  For  silver  mining,  Colorado,  possi- 
bly Nevada,  Arizona,  Utah,  Montana,  New  Mexico,  and  perhaps 
Idaho.  Texas  may  yet  develop  some  good  mines  of  gold  and 
silver,  but  there  is  thus  far  nothing  specially  attractive  there. 
California  is  not  opening  many  new  mines,  and  the  old  ones 
have  little  need  of  new-comers. 

To  capitalists  desirous  of  investing  in  mining  enterprises,  we 
have  no  advice  to  offer.  They  have  generally  their  own  ideas 
about  such  investments:  if  these  ideas  are  correct,  they  will  be 
successful ; if  not,  so  much  the  worse  for  them. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Other  Metals  and  Mineral  Products — Quicksilver — Copper — Lead  and 
Zinc — Iron — Platinum — Tin — Nickel — Iridium  and  Osmium — Tellurium 
— Antimony  — Arsenic  — Manganese  — Sulphur  — Borax — Soda — Salt — 
Coal — Wood  and  Charcoal  as  Fuel — Mineral  Springs. 

Mercury  or  quicksilver  is  found  rarely  in  its  native  or 
metallic  state,  but  generally  as  cinnabar  or  sulphide  of  mercury, 
abundantly  at  many  points  in  the  Coast  Range  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  but  is  only  mined  and  reduced  to  any  considerable  extent 
in  California,  where  the  New  Almaden  and  the  New  Idria  mines 
will  probably  exceed  the  great  Spanish  mines  from  which  they 


8o 


OTHER  METALS  AND  MINERALS. 


take  their  names.  Several  other  mines  in  the  vicinity  of  these 
are  in  operation,  and  whenever  there  is  an  increased  demand  for 
the  metal,  will  prove  profitable  ; but  now  that  the  long  litigation 
which  closed  the  two  principal  mines  for  a number  of  years  is 
settled,  their  production  will  greatly  increase.  The  opening  of 
so  many  new  gold  mines,  and  the  great  extent  to  which  hydrau- 
lic mining  is  now  carried,  insures  a prompt  market  at  paying 
prices,  for  all  the  quicksilver  which  these  mines  can  produce,  for 
thus  far  the  reduction  of  gold  without  quicksilver  has  been  found 
impossible.  There  are  large  deposits  of  cinnabar,  apparently 
inexhaustible,  in  Washoe  and  Nye  counties,  Nevada,  in  Utah, 
and  alleged  discoveries  of  it  have  been  made  in  Oregon  and  in 
Arizona. 

Copper. — The  ores  of  this  metal,  and  the  native  metal 
itself,  though  not  in  large  masses  as  in  the  Lake  Superior  region, 
are  found  in  nearly  every  State  and  Territory  of  the  Great  West. 
It  is  found  in  all  forms;  without  admixture  with  other  metals,  as 
malachite,  the  beautiful  green  carbonate  of  copper,  the  red,  blue, 
gray,  yellow,  and  vitreous  carbonates  and  oxides,  as  copper-glance, 
tetrahedrite,  and  in  every  other  known  form  of  crystallization  ; as 
copper  pyrites  in  combination  with  gold,  and  in  various  propor- 
tions, in  combination  with  silver,  both  in  the  carbonates  and 
sulphides. 

There  are  hundreds  of  copper  mines  in  California,  the  metal 
occurring  in  some  form  in  nearly  every  county  in  the  State. 
Some  of  these  have  proved  unprofitable,  owing  to  mismanage- 
ment, distance  from  market,  and  difficulty  or  impossibility  of 
their  reduction  near  home.  Recently  improved  methods  of 
smelting  have  been  introduced  in  California  and  other  States, 
and  it  is  no  longer  necessary  to  ship  the  ores  to  Baltimore  or  to 
Swansea,  Wales,  to  be  reduced. 

Arizona  is  very  rich  in  copper  ores,  and  they  can  be  very 
easily  worked.  They  yield  from  thirty-six  to  sixty  per  cent,  or 
more  of  pure  copper.  Some  of  them  are  already  sending  large 
quantities  of  block-copper  to  San  Francisco.  Nevada  has  an 
abundance  of  copper,  but  it  is  mostly  in  combination  with  the 
silver.  The  copper  veins  of  Northern  California  extend  into 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


8l 


Southwestern  Oregon,  and  are  even  richer  there  than  in  Califor- 
nia. Copper  has  also  been  discovered  in  Eastern  Oregon. 
Washington  Territory  has  its  full  share  of  copper,  though  its 
mines  are  as  yet  undeveloped. 

Both  Idaho  and  Montana  are  rich  in  copper,  both  in  combina- 
tion with  silver  and  alone.  Montana  parts  her  copper  from  the 
silver  in  some  of  her  smelting-works  and  ships  it  to  the  East. 

So  far  as  yet  discovered,  the  copper  in  Dakota,  at  the  Black 
Hills,  is  mostly  combined  with  gold  and  silver,  but  deposits  of 
it,  not  thus  alloyed,  may  yet  be  discovered.  In  Minnesota  the 
great  copper  field  is  around  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior ; the 
copper  deposits  of  the  Ontonagon  district  in  Northern  Michi- 
gan, dipping  under  the  lake,  and  reappearing  on  the  Western 
shore. 

Proceeding  southward,  Iowa  has  some  copper,  but  not  de- 
veloped. Missouri,  large  beds  of  it,  formerly  worked  exten- 
sively, but  now  of  such  low  grade  as  not  to  be  profitably  exploited; 
Nebraska  only  a small  deposit  in  the  southeast;  while  Kansas, 
which  abounds  in  lead  and  zinc,  has  not  yet  developed  any  cop- 
per. Wyoming  is  abundantly  supplied  with  most  of  the  ores  of 
copper.  In  Colorado,  from  ^90,000  to  20,000  value  of  copper, 
parted  from  silver  and  gold,  is  sent  to  market  every  year.  There 
are  also  mines  of  copper  alone.  But  New  Mexico,  while  all  her 
mines  of  gold,  silver  and  lead  are  rich,  excels  all  the  other 
States  and  Territories  of  the  West  in  the  wealth  of  her  copper 
mines,  which  are  now  in  a fair  way  to  be  developed  on  a large 
scale.  Arkansas  has  large  deposits  of  copper  ore  among  her 
other  mineral  wealth;  it  is  found,  though  not  developed,  in  the 
Indian  Territory,  and  Texas  can  furnish  a supply,  not  only 
for  all  the  copper-heads,  but  for  all  the  copper-bottoms  of  the 
world. 

Lead  is  as  widely  diffused  as  copper ; perhaps  even  more  ex- 
tensively. Wherever  silver  is  found,  lead  is  almost  invariably 
present,  either  as  sulphuret  (galena),  carbonate,  or  oxide.  And 
where  silver  is  absent,  or  present  only  in  infinitesimal  proportions, 
as  in  Kansas,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  and  Missouri,  and  in  some  of  the 
mines  of  Wyoming,  Dakota  and  Montana,  the  lead  puts  in  its 


82 


LEAD,  ZINC,  IRON,  STEEL. 


appearance,  as  sufficient  of  itself,  without  the  more  costly  metal. 
The  quantities  of  it  parted  from  silver  are  enormous,  the  supply 
from  two  districts  of  Nevada  alone  being  nearly  sufficient  for 
the  American  market,  and  that  of  Colorado  nearly  a million  of 
dollars  annually.  The  other  great  mining  regions  add  to  this 
vast  total,  and  Kansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  and  other  States  east  of 
the  Mississippi,  aid  in  rolling  up  an  immense  aggregate.  • For- 
tunately the  demand  for  lead  is  great  and  constant,  not  limited 
to  the  arts  of  war  and  the  slaughter  of  game,  but  extending 
also  to  many  of  the  arts  of  peace,  being  used  in  rolls,  sheets, 
and  piping  and  tubing,  furnishing  the  basis  of  nearly  all  of  oii.r* 
paints,  and  of  many  of  our  drugs. 

Zinc  is  not  quite  so  widely  distributed,  but  is  often  found  in 
combination  with  silver  and  lead.  It  is  also  found  by  itself,  or 
with  lead  in  the  form  of  sulphuret  (Blende),  silicate  (calamine), 
or  carbonate  (Smithsonite).  It  is  mined  and  reduced  quite 
largely  in  Kansas,  and  to  some  extent  in  Missouri  and  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  resources  of  our  Western  Empire,  for  the  production  of 
Iron  and  Steel,  have  no  parallel  on  the  globe.  No  one  of  the 
States  and  Territories  composing  it  lacks  deposits  of  iron  ore, 
in  some  of  its  many  and  varied  forms ; and  in  many  of  them  it 
is  found  of  such  excellent  quality,  and  in  such  immediate  prox- 
imity to  coal-beds,  and  the  necessary  fluxes,  that  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction is  reduced  to  the  lowest  minimum.  The  great  railways 
which  traverse  the  continent  can  have  their  iron  and  steel  rails 
manufactured  within  500  feet  of  their  tracks,  and  of  such  quality 
as  cannot  be  obtained  at  any  price  abroad.  The  mountains  of 
iron  ore  yielding  from  fifty  to  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  pure  metal, 
which  are  found  in  Missouri,  Utah,  Oregon,  California,  Wyoming, 
Texas  and  Montana,  only  needed  the  present  demand  for  iron 
and  steel  to  stimulate  their  development,  and  in  a short  time 
there  will  be  enough  iron  and  steel,  of  the  best  quality,  produced 
in  these  States  and  Territories,  to  supply  not  only  all  the  iron 
and  steel  rails  (and  it  is  estimated  that  nearly  2,000,000  tons  of 
these  will  be  needed  the  present  year),  but  all  the  machinery  for 
mining,  milling,  manufacturing  and  agricultural  purposes,  all  the 


OUR  WESTEIUV  EMPIRE. 


iron  and  steel  for  steamers  and  ships,  whether  for  commerce  of 
naval  purposes,  all  the  steel  guns,  all  the  bridges,  all  the  build- 
ings, all  the  hardware,  car-wheels,  cutlery,  and  all  of  both  metals 
that  is  needed  for  any  other  purpose  under  the  sun,  not  only 
within  the  limits  of  our  Western  Empire,  but  all  the  world  over. 
Duty  or  no  duty,  neither  England  nor  any  other  nation  of 
Europe  can  compete  with  furnaces,  where  the  ore,  fluxes  and 
coal  can  be  thrown  directly  into  the  furnace  through  chutes, 
without  handling,  and  the  prime  cost  of  all  the  material  and 
its  conversion  into  steel,  need  not  exceed  from  ^lo  to  ^12 
per  ton,  while  the  product  is  of  the  very  best  quality.  But  the 
first  cost  of  the  establishment  of  these  furnaces,  and  the  rolling- 
mills,  machine-shops,  foundries,  etc.,  etc.,  is  very  large,  and  re- 
quires, and  will  require,  the  investment  of  many  millions  of 
capital,  though,  once  under  way,  the  returns  will  be  enormous, 
and  the  rapid  growth  of  these  establishments  will  be  gigantic. 
European  capitalists  are  already  transferring  their  furnaces 
and  workmen  to  this  country  in  large  numbers,  and  they  are  . 
wise  in  doing  so.  Within  the  next  five  years  there  will  be  a 
demand  for  the  services  of  every  skilled  worker  in  iron  and  steel 
who  may  land  in  this  country,  and  at  good  wages. 

The  consumption  of  iron  and  steel,  of  our  own  production, 
and  imported  from  abroad  in  1879,  4,410,000  tons,  of 

which  510,000  tons  were  imported;  we  are  perfectly  safe  in 
predicting  that,  in  1889,  it  will  exceed  12,000,000  tons,  and  all 
of  it  will  be  raised  from  our  own  mines,  and  smelted  in  our  own 
furnaces. 

Platimun  is  found  pure,  and  in  combination  with  gold,  iridium 
and  iridosmin  on  the  coast  of  California  and  Oregon,  and  in 
some  of  the  gold  mines  of  Colorado  and  Arizona  and  perhaps  else- 
where. The  quantity  is  not  large,  indeed  it  is  a rare  metal 
everywhere,  the  Russian  mines,  which  furnish  from  4,200  to 
5,000  pounds  annually,  producing  about  four-fifths  of  the  whole 
amount  yielded  by  all  countries.  The  whole  quantity  produced 
in  the  United  States  does  not  probably  exceed  450  or  500 
pounds.  Mr.  Edison,  the  inventor,  in  1879  desired  to  use  pla- 
tinum wires  for  holding  the  carbons  for  his  divided  electric 


84 


PLATINUM,  TIN,  NICKEL,  IRIDIUM. 


lights,  and  addressed  inquiries  to  all  parties  connected  with 
gold-mining  operations  in  regard  to  a possible  or  probable  sup- 
ply of  the  metal.  He  found  that  it  was  much  more  widely  dif- 
fused than  had  generally  been  supposed,  but  that  it  was  found 
in  such  small  quantities  that  any  considerable  increased  demand 
would  enhance  the  price  beyond  the  limit  which  he  could  afford 
to  pay,  and  he  substituted  a less  expensive  material  for  it.  ‘Pla- 
tinum is  now  vC^orth  from  $70  to  ^75  per  pound. 

Tm  is  not  found  in  large  quantities  in  any  part  of  the  United 
States,  but  the  greater  part  of  what  does  occur  is  in  California, 
Nevada,  Idaho,  Missouri,  Arizona  and  Texas.  It  is  also  found  in 
the  State  of  Durango,  in  Mexico.  It  is  mostly  found  in  its  best 
form  as  cassiterite  or  oxide  of  tin,  and  is  classed  as  mine  tin, 
stream  tin,  and  wood  tin.  This  ore  contains  about  seventy-eight 
per  cent,  of  pure  metal.  The  entire  production  of  the  world 
is  from  28,000  to  30,000  tons,  of  which  more  than  three-fifths 
comes  from  the  East  Indies,  from  Banca  and  the  straits  of  Ma- 
lacca. The  American  production  is  not  sufficient  to  exert 
any  appreciable  influence  on  the  market. 

Nickel,  which  is  now  becoming  a metal  of  so  much  economic 
value  in  the  useful  arts,  is  found  in  our  Western  Empire,  as  else- 
where, in  combination  with  several  of  the  ores  of  iron.  It  forms 
but  a very  small  constituent  in  these  ores,  from  two  to  five  per 
cent.,  and  occurs  oftenest  in  the  argillaceous  ores.  By  proper 
treatment  of  the  ores,  it  is  removed  in  the  slag,  and  is  concen- 
trated by  various  processes  till  the  matte  contains  about  thirty- 
five  per  cent.,  when  it  is  dissolved  out  by  acids.  Its  use  in 
electro-plating  Is  very  important  In  the  arts,  and  requires  consid- 
erable skill  In  Its  successful  manipulation.  Nickel  in  a pure  state 
Is  worth  about  $3  a pound. 

Iridium  and  Osmium,  or  rather  the  compound  known  as  Iridos- 
min,  which  contains  both  metals,  and  usually  a small  percentage 
of  rhodium,  and  sometimes  ruthenium,  is  found  in  small  hard 
grains  and  sometimes  In  scales,  in  the  placer  deposits,  and  asso- 
ciates with  platinum.  The  alloy  is  the  hardest  of  known  metallic 
bodies,  and  is  infusible  except  under  the  oxy-hydrogen  blow-pipe. 
The  iridosmin  is  used  in  Its  native  condition  for  pointing  the  nibs 


O i 7v’  IVES  TERN  EMPIR  E. 


85 


of  gold  pens,  being  as  nearly  as  possible  indestructible  either  by 
accidents,  or  by  the  chemicals  in  the  ink,  and  being  very  hard. 
Only  the  rounded  particles  are  suitable  for  this  purpose,  and 
these  constitute  only  from  one-fifth  to  one-tenth  of  the  whole. 
The  price  a few  years  since  was  $250  per  ounce.  From  three  to 
eight  ounces  are  obtained  at  the  Assay  offices  in  the  melting  of 
one  million  of  dollars  of  gold.  The  iridium,  when  isolated,  fur- 
nishes the  basis  of  a black  used  in  decorating  porcelain,  which 
when  baked  in,  is  indestructible. 

Tellurmvi  is  found  in  combination  with  both  gold  and  silver  as 
tellurides  of  those  metals.  It  belongs  to  the  same  class  of  ele- 
mentary bodies  as  sulphur,  and  imitates  it  in  most  of  its  com- 
pounds. It  has  little  e^conomic  value,  but  is  a great  source  of 
annoyance  in  the  reduction  works,  in  California,  Colorado,  and 
Montana,  from  the  intensely  poisonous  and  foetid  properties  of 
its  compounds.  It  is  found  sparingly  in  most  of  the  larger  gold 
deposits. 

Antimony.  Arsenic^  and  Maiiganese,  are  found  as  sulphides,  sul- 
phates, carbonates,  oxides,  and  in  rarer  forms,  in  combination 
with  silver,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  and  iron,  sometimes  impairing,  at 
others  enhancing,  the  value  of  the  compound.  In  most  cases  the 
antimony  and  arsenic  are  expelled  in  the  smelter’s  furnace.  The 
manganese  in  its  combination  with  iron  is,  to  a certain  extent, 
beneficial. 

Sulphnr,  in  the  form  of  sulphides  and  sulphates,  is  present  in 
a large  proportion  of  the  silver,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  and  iron  ores. 
But  it  is  also  found  in  a native  state  in  large  masses  or  deposits, 
in  those  portions  of  California  which  were  formerly  subject  to 
volcanic  eruptions,  in  Humboldt  county,  in  Nevada,  at  several 
points  in  Utah,  especially  in  Millard  county,  where  the  deposit  is 
more  than  twenty  feet  thick;  at  Brimstone  Mountain  in  the  Yel- 
lowstone Park  region,  in  Dakota,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and 
Texas.  Sulphuric  and  muriatic  acid  are  produced  at  some  of 
the  smelting  works  from  the  sulphurets  of  iron,  copper,  and  lead; 
while  the  sulphates  of  soda,  magnesia  and  potassa,  are  obtained 
in  a nearly  pure  state  in  the  alkaline  lakes  of  California,  Nevada, 
Utah  and  Wyoming.  The  sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum  or  plaster 


86 


SULPHUR,  POP  AX,  SODA,  SALT. 


of  Paris)  is  found  in  extensive  deposits  nearly  or  quite  pure,  in 
almost  every  vState  and  Territory  of  the  region,  and  in  California, 
Colorado,  Texas,  and  perhaps  elsewhere,  it  assumes  also  its 
beautiful  forms  of  alabaster  and  selenite.  The  sulphates  of  zinc, 
copper,  and  iron,  if  they  do  not  exist  naturally,  are  easily  formed 
by  the  reduction  of  the  sulphurets  of  those  metals. 

Borax  (chemically  the  biborate  of  soda)  is  found  at  several 
points  in  California  and  Nevada,  in  the  mud  and  the  water  of 
alkaline  lakes;  and  is  now  produced  of  great  purity,  and  in  such 
large  quantities  as  to  have  revolutionized  the  market,  and  caused 
the  price  of  the  article  at  retail  to  fall  from  fifty  or  sixty  cents 
below  twenty  cents  per  pound.  It  is  either  gathered  in  crystals, 
evaporated  from  the  water,  or  procured  from  the  mud,  by  wash- 
ing or  by  lixiviation.  The  supply  seems  inexhaustible,  though 
the  demand  has  greatly  increased  since  the  market  began  to  be 
supplied  from  the  Pacific  coast. 

Soda,  both  as  caustic  soda,  and  carbonate  of  soda  or  pearlasli, 
and  also  as  sulphate  of  soda  or  Glauber’s  salts,  exists  naturally 
in  the  Great  Salt  Lake  and  its  vicinity ; at  several  places  in  Cali- 
fornia and  Nevada,  and  in  the  alkaline  lands.  It  is  also  found 
in  the  Yellowstone  region  and  in  Texas.  That  found  in  Utah  is 
so  nearly  chemically  pure  as  hardly  to  need  refining. 

Salt. — This  invaluable  mineral  is  widely  diffused  over  this  vast 
region.  On  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  it  is  procured  by  solar 
evaporation  and  boiling.  All  over  California  there  are  salt 
springs,  and  in  many  places  salt  lakes,  from  which  incrustations 
of  nearly  pure  salt  can  be  gathered.  In  Nevada  it  is  found  in 
larore  bodies  in  the  beds  of  desiccated  lakes,  in  the  waters  of  salt 
lakes,  and  in  mountain  deposits.  In  Utah,  the  Great  Salt  Lake 
is  a saturated  solution  of  common  salt,  five  gallons  of  it  yielding 
one  and  three-fourths  gallons  of  crystallized  salt.  It  is  now 
manufactured  largely  from  the  waters  of  the  lake,  and  much  is 
produced  by  natural  solar  evaporation.  Rock-salt,  much  of  it 
almost  perfectly  pure,  is  mined  in  Salt  Creek  Canon  and  on  the 
Sevier  river.  The  northern  part  of  Utah  abounds  in  salt  springs, 
which  pour  their  waters  into  the  Salt  Lake.  Wyoming  has  also 
its  salt  deposits,  as  well  as  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  many  of  them 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


/ 


in  the  form  of  brine  springs.  Arkansas,  the  Indian  Territory, 
and  Texas  have  also  brine  springs,  salt  lakes,  and  deposits  of 
salt.  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  have  salt  deposits  and  salt  lakes. 
The  supply  in  most  of  the  States  and  Territories  now  exceeds  the 
demand,  but  the  growing  requirements  of  the  smelting  and  re- 
duction works  for  it,  m the  reduction  of  pyritous  ores,  and  to 
some  extent  the  carbonates  also,  as  well  as  its  use  for  domestic 
and  packing  purposes,  insure  a future  demand  which  will  require 
the  erection  of  additional  salt-works. 

Coal  is  found  at  many  points  in  this  vast  region,  and  of  many 
different  qualities.  There  are  four  distinct  coal-fields  between 
the  Mississippi  river  and  the  Pacific  ocean,  and  they  comprise  an 
area  of  more  than  200,000  square  miles.  The  first  of  these  coal- 
fields extends  from  Iowa,  in  which  State  it  covers  a large  area, 
through  Missouri,  Eastern  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  Arkansas,  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  Indian  Territory,  and  Eastern  Texas. 
This  is  called  the  Missouri  coal-field.  It  is  a bituminous  coal, 
from  the  middle  coal  measures  of  the  carboniferous  system,  in 
many  places  of  excellent  quality,  and  belongs  to  the  class  of 
coking  coals,  being  valuable  for  heating  and  smelting  purposes. 
The  total  area  of  this  coal-field  is  somewhat  more  than  47,000 
square  miles,  or  a little  larger  than  the  State  of  Pennsylvania. 
The  second  of  the  coal-fields  begins  in  British  America,  near  the 
Saskatchewan  river,  and  passes  southward  through  Dakota, 
Eastern  Montana,  Western  Nebraska,  and  Kansas,  and  Eastern 
Wyoming,  through  Colorado,  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
Northeastern  New  Mexico,  and  Central  and  Western  Texas.  It 
is  a lignite  coal,  belonging  to  the  cretaceous  period,  and  in  some 
parts  of  its  course  yields  a very  fair  heating  coal,  furnishing 
some  gas,  but  not  coking.  In  some  of  the  places  where  it  is 
mined,  it  assumes  the  characteristics  of  a c'annel  coal,  though  of 
inferior  quality.  It  covers  an  area  of  about  40,000  square  miles, 
but  much  of  it  is  too  deep  for  successful  mining,  especially  as 
the  quality  of  the  coal  is  not  of  the  first  class. 

The  third  coal-field  is  a very  remarkable  one.  Like  the 
second,  it  commences  in  British  America,  passes  through  West- 
ern Montana  and  Idaho,  through  Western  Wyoming  and  Utah, 


88 


COAL. 


through  Western  Colorado  and  New  Mexico,  and  perhaps 
Eastern  Nevada,  through  Arizona  and  Northwestern  Texas,  and 
into  Mexico.  Like  the  second  coal-field,  it  is  a lignite,  but  of 
the  tertiary  instead  of  the  cretaceous  period,  being  found  at  the 
north  only  in  the  miocene,  but  in  Texas,  principally,  in  the 
eocene  rocks.  In  Western  Colorado,  in  Utah,  and  ia  New 
Mexico,  near  Santa  Fe,  volcanic  action  has  changed  it  into  an 
anthracite  coal,  that  in  New  Mexico  being  of  a quality  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  the  Pennsylvania  mines.  The  coal-beds  of  La 
Plata  county,  Colorado,  in  the  vicinity  of  Animas  City,  have 
recently  proved  to  be  anthracite,  probably  tertiary  lignites 
changed  by  volcanic  action.  At  other  places,  as  in  parts  of 
Utah,  it  has  been  hanged  into  a semi-bituminous  coal.  Some 
beds  of  it  coke  and  give  evidence  of  being  good  smelting  coals. 

The  fourth  coal-field  is  in  reality  two  coal-fields  which  inter- 
lock, the  one,  lignites  of  the  tertiary,  which  pass  through  Eastern 
Washington  and  Oregon,  and  in  California  appear  on  both  sides 
of  the  Coast  range ; the  other,  coming  from  Alaska,  and  furnish- 
ing on  Vancouver  island  and  in  the  Straits  of  San  Juan  de  Fuca 
some  mines  of  excellent  bituminous  coal,  and  passing  down  the 
coast  of  Washington  and  Oregon,  growing  constantly  poorer  and 
more  charged  with  sulphur,  become,  in  California,  interlaced  with 
the  deposits  of  the  tertiary  lignite.  At  one  or  two  points,  as  at 
Monte  Diablo,  they  yield  a fair  quality  of  bituminous  coal.  The 
last-named  branch  of  this  coal-field  is  found  only  in  the  cretaceous 
rocks,  and  as  it  approaches  former  or  recent  centres  of  volcanic 
action  changes,  as  on  Vancouver  island,  to  a semi-bituminous 
coal,  and  in  the  Queen  Charlotte  islands,  off  the  coast  of  British 
Columbia,  to  a true  anthracite  of  excellent  quality.  This  double 
coal-field  covers  nearly  60,000  square  miles,  and  the  preceding 
one  over  50,000.  The  San  Francisco  market  is  supplied  with 
cannel-coal  from  Enorland  and  Australia ; bituminous  and  semi- 
bituminous  from  Chili  and  Vancover  island ; anthracite  from 
Pennsylvania  and  Queen  Charlotte  islands;  Cumberland  and 
other  bituminous  coals  from  Pittsburgh,  Leavenworth  and 
Wyoming,  and  Pacific  coast  lignites  from  Bellingham  Bay,  Wash- 
ington Territory,  Coos  Bay,  Oregon,  and  Monte  Diablo  in  Cali- 


OUR  WESTER iV  EMPIRE. 


fornia.  The  Colorado  and  New  Mexican  coals  will  also  appear 
in  its  markets  as  soon  as  a more  direct  railroad  communication  is 
established. 

In  many  portions  of  this  vast  territory,  where  fuel  for  smelting- 
purposes  is  required  either  for  the  reduction  of  the  precious 
metals  and  lead  or  copper,  or  for  the  production  of  pig-iron  and 
Bessemer  steel,  the  forests  are  still  so  dense  and  convenient  that 
wood  or  charcoal  is  cheaper  than  coal.  But  other  sections  are 
obliged  to  rely  upon  coal  and  upon  that  which  can  be  coked; 
and  in  some  of  the  States  or  Territories,  as  for  example  In  Ne- 
vada, these  coking  coals,  or  the  coke  made  from  them,  are 
brought  from  long  distances,  and  at  a considerable  expense. 

Intimately  connected  with  coal,  geologically,  are  two  other  min- 
eral products,  Asphaltum  and  Peh^oleum.  In  California  there 
are  lakes,  or  rather  marshes,  which  after  the  winter  rains  have 
a shallow  depth  of  water  on  their  surfaces,  which  are  covered 
to  a considerable  depth  with  asphaltum,  in  varying  degrees  ol 
hardness,  some  of  it  being  of  the  consistency  of  molasses,  and 
entangling  the  cattle,  which  are  drawn  thither  by  the  hope  of 
finding  water,  and  perish  in  the  sticky  mass ; nearer  the  edges  it 
is  hardened,  and  becomes  the  solid  asphalt  of  commerce.  These 
lakes  or  marshes  are  found  in  San  Luis  Obispo,  Santa  Barbara, 
Tulare,  and  Los  Angeles  counties.  Some  petroleum  Is  found 
with  them,  but  the  best  petroleum  oils  of  California,  and  they  are 
of  excellent  quality,  are  in  Humboldt,  Colusa,  and  Contra  Costa 
counties,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Monte  Diablo ; but  all  the  coast 
counties  have  petroleum  springs.  Petroleum  has  also  been  dis- 
covered in  Nevada,  though  it  has  not  been  developed.  In 
Northwestern  Colorado,  on  the  White  river,  in  and  near  the  Ute 
Reservation,  there  are  extensive  springs  and  marshes  of  petro- 
leum, asphalt,  and  mineral  tar.  There  are  also  petroleum  springs 
on  the  headwaters  of  the  Arkansas  river,  near  Denver.  The 
petroleum  region  of  Northwestern  Colorado  extends  northward 
through  Western  Wyoming,  Montana,  and  possibly  Idaho.  Re- 
cently extensive  springs  and  wells  of  petroleum  of  excellent 
quality  have  been  discovered  and  worked  about  ninety  miles 
north  of  Point  of  Rocks,  on  the  Union  Pacific  Railway,  in  Wyom- 


90 


6EVSERS  AND  MEVERAL  SRR/NGS. 


ing  Territory.  The  last  report  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railway, 
presented  in  March,  1880,  says  that  the  supply  is  apparently 
inexhaustible ; that  it  is  used  extensively  on  the  railway,  and  that 
it  will  probably  be  shipped  eastward  and  westward  in  large 
quantities,  as  soon  as  arrangements  can  be  made  for  -its  trans- 
portation. Petroleum  and  beds  of  mineral  or  paraffin-wax  have 
been  discovered  in  Utah,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Spanish  Fork 
canon.  The  mineral  wax  is  of  the  same  quality  of  that  found  in 
Galicia,  Austria.  In  Kansas  there  are  numerous  gas-wells,  some 
of  them  furnishing  a sufficient  quantity  of  illuminating  gas  to 
light  a city  of  30,000  inhabitants.  These  indicate  the  existence 
of  reservoirs  of  petroleum  below  the  shales  or  bituminous  rocks, 
through  which  the  wells  are  bored.  There  are  also  indications 
of  the  presence  of  petroleum  in  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Texas. 

Of  other  mineral  products,  not  already  noticed,  we  may  men- 
tion mica,  which  is  found  in  extensive  deposits,  though  not  yet 
in  very  large  sheets,  at  numerous  points  in  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
as  well  as  in  the  Cascade  Mountains ; alum  (sulphate  of  alum- 
ina; found  in  great  quantity  and  nearly  pure,  in  Utah  ; kaolin  and 
other  porcelain  clays,  and  the  finest  of  glass-sand  in  all  the  States 
and  Territories  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Most  of  the  sili- 
cates are  also  found  in  combination. 

rMit  aside  from  the  mines  of  the  precious  metals,  nothing  in  the 
mineral  world  has  excited  so  much  interest  in  all  parts  of  this  vast 
region,  as  the  abundance  and  variety  of  its  mineral  springs  and 
geysers.  The  known  geysers,  some  of  them  the  most  remark- 
able yet  discovered  anywhere,  are  found  in  California,  in  the 
Yellowstone  Park,  and  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Yellowstone, 
the  Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Gallatin  rivers.  This  region,  like 
that  in  California,  has  been  the  scene  of  volcanic  action.  In  our 
description  of  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  we  shall  give  a 
detailed  account  of  these  and  other  remarkable  phenomena, 
found  in  that  true  wonder-land.  But  the  springs  thought  to  pos- 
:sess  medicinal  or  healing  virtues  are  myriads  in  number,  as  well 
as  in  character.  Some,  like  the  scores  of  Hot  Springs  in  Arkan- 
sas, Texas,  Colorado,  Nevada,  California,  Utah,  Montana,  and 
Wyoming,  have  no  appreciable  mineral  constituents,  but  owe 
9 


OUR  IVES  TERN  EMPIRE. 


91 


their  healing  properties  either  to  their  thermal  quality  (the  heat 
ranging  from  95  to  225°  F.)  or  to  some  not  fully  understood 
electric  influence,  which  is  thought  to  pervade  them ; others, 
whether  cold  or  warm,  owe  their  reputed  medicinal  virtue  to  their 
impregnation  with  sulphur,  iron,  lime,  potassa,  soda,  lithia,  phos- 
phorus, or  some  and  perhaps  several  of  the  sulphates,  carbonates, 
phosphates,  nitrates,  lithiates,  chlorides,  bromides,  or  iodides,  or 
other  compounds  of  metals,  alkalies,  and  alkaline  earths,  and 
mineral  acids,  and  generally  the  more  nauseous  and  diabolic  the 
taste  and  smell  of  these  villanous  compounds  from  Nature’s 
laboratory,  the  greater  the  healing  virtues  they  are  believed  to 
contain. 


CHAPTER  XL 

No  very  close  approximation  of  the  amount  of  arable  lands  in 
'Our  Western  Empire  can  be  made.  The  reports  of  the  Sur- 
veyors-General  to  the  Land  Office  each  year  develop  the  fact 
that,  in  the  newer  States  and  Territories,  thousands  of  acres,  pre- 
viously deemed  incapable  of  cultivation,  have  been  conquered  by 
the  enterprising  settlers,  and  must  henceforth  be  recorded  as 
arable  lands  of  extraordinary  fertility.  We  have  alluded  to  this, 
in  our  chapter  on  the  Great  American  Desert ; but  it  is  a fact  which 
will  bear  repetition  and  illustration.  Nearly  the  whole  region 
lying  between  the  Mississippi  river  and  the  Rocky  Mountains 
was  regarded  fifty  years  ago  as  a desert  land,  incapable  of  any 
‘Considerable  cultivation,  and  given  over  to  the  buffalo,  the  pan- 
ther, and  the  prairie  wolf ; yet  in  no  part  of  the  vast  domain  of 
the  United  States,  and  certainly  in  no  other  country  under  the 
sun,  is  there  a body  of  land  of  equal  extent,  in  which  there  are 
so  few  acres  unfit  for  cultivation,  or  so  many  which,  with  irriga- 
tion ‘or  without  it,  will  yield  such  bountiful  crops.  The  land  lying 
between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  or  Cas- 
cade Range,  has  more  mountains,  and  more  grazing  lands  ; some 
of  it,  too,  is  incapable  of  culture,  and  is  more  valuable  for  the 
mineral  wealth  which  lies  beneath  the  surface,  than  for  any  crops 
which  can  be  raised  from  it.  Some  of  these  lands  are  volcanic, 


92 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


and  the  lava  and  volcanic  scoricC  have  not  yet  been  long  enough 
exposed  to  the  influences  of  sun,  and  rain,  and  glacial  action,  to 
render  them  fertile  as  they  will  eventually  become.  Of  a con- 
siderable portion  of  this  region,  also,  it  may  be  said,  that  it  has 
not  yet  been  explored  with  sufficient  thoroughness,  to  settle  the 
questions  whether  it  is  best  adapted  to  cultivation  or  gracing,  or 
whether  it  is  unfit  for  either. 

Perhaps  we  cannot  now  come  nearer  the  truth  than  to  say,  that, 
of  the  2,028,000  square  miles  comprised  between  the  Mississippi 
and  the  Pacific,  from  756,000  to  800,000  miles  may  fairly  be 
reckoned  arable.  Of  this  one-fourth,  and  possibly  a little  more, 
may  require  more  or  less  irrigation,  for  some  years  to  come,  to 
bring  out  their  highest  productiveness ; but  this  is  regarded  by 
the  farmers  themselves  as  an  advantage,  rather  than  a disadvan- 
tage, since  by  means  of  it,  they  are  assured  of  large  and  excellent 
crops  every  year. 

None  of  the  States  lying  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
the  Mississippi  river  have  much  waste  or  unimprovable  land. 
Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  portions  of  the  Indian  Territory,  and 
Northwestern  Texas  are  more  mountainous  than  the  others,  and 
have  some  grazing,  and  some  sterile  lands. 

This  whole  region  is  well  adapted  to  fruit  culture.  The  apple 
of  different  varieties,  and,  to  a less  extent,  the  pear,  flourishes 
from  Minnesota  to  Arkansas ; the  peach  from  Iowa  and  Mis- 
souri to  the  Gulf;  quinces  from  Minnesota  to  Kansas,  and 
cherries  and  plums  from  Northern  Dakota  to  the  Gulf.  Of 
smaller  fruits,  grapes,  native  and  wild,  as  well  as  the  cultivated 
varieties,  are  found  everywhere,  though  the  hardy  species  alone 
flourish  at  the  North,  whether  wild  or  cultivated,  while  the  more 
robust  summer  grapes  {Vitis  ceslivalis),  native  and  foreign,  take 
their  place  in  the  South.  The  strawberry  flourishes  everywhere, 
but  is  six  weeks  earlier  in  Texas  than  in  Minnesota.  The  rasp- 
berry, blackberry,  currant,  and  whortleberry,  arc  better  adapted  to 
the  Northern  and  Middle  States  and  Territories  than  to  the  South; 
but  the  papaw  and  the  banana,  the  -pomegranate,  fig.  orange. 


OUR  WESl'ERN  EMPIRE. 


93 

lemon,  and  olive,  are  found  in  the  South  alone.  In  the  way  of 
nuts,  the  North  has  the  chestnut,  hickory-nut,  black  walnut,  butter- 
nut, hazel-nut,  and  beech-nut;  while  the  South  has  the  pecan,  the 
chinquepin,  the  filbert,  the  hard-shell  almond,  and  can  have  the 
English  walnut,  and  pistachio  nut,  if  they  will  cultivate  it. 

Of  textile  fibres,  hemp  grows  in  all  latitudes  : flax  mostly  in  the 
North,  cotton,  ramie,  jute,  tampico,  agave  fibre  and  cactus  fibres 
in  the  South,  while  the  dry,  wiry  grasses  of  the  river  bottoms  of 
the  Mississippi  and  its  western  tributaries,  now  coming  into 
demand  for  paper  stock,  are  mainl)’  the  {iroduct  of  the  northern 
region. 

Tobacco  grows  in  almost  all  latitudes, ‘but  Missouri,  Arkansas, 
and  Texas  are  the  only  States  in  which  it  is  largely  cultivated. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  consist  of  two,  and  a part  of  the  distance, 
three  principal  ranges,  having  a general  direction  of  north-north- 
west  to  south-southeast,  and  numerous  spurs  and  out-liers  con- 
nectine  these  ranges  and  extendino^  from  them  westward.  The 
eastern  slope  has  no  spurs  extending  eastward  unless  we  except 
some  hills  of  no  great  elevation  in  Wyoming.  The  Black  Hills 
in  Dakota,  the  Osage  and  Ozark  Mountains  in  Missouri  and 
Arkansas,  belong  to  a different  mountain  system.  While  these 
mountain  ranges  have  many  peaks  or  summits  from  13,000  to 
14,000  feet  in  height,  and  some  even  higher,  the  table-lands  from 
which  the  summits  rise  are  generally  from  5,500  to  8,500  feet  in 
height,  and  most  of  the  passes  by  which  the  ranges  arc  crossed 
do  not  exceed  that  elevation.  There  are  also  many  valleys  and 
parks  between  the  ranges,  which  contain  fine  tracts  of  arable 
land;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  land  included  within  these 
ranges  is  better  adapted  for  grazing  than  farming ; and  con- 
siderable portions  are  only  valuable  for  mining  and  the  opera- 
tions connected  with  it.  The  grazing  lands  of  Colorado,  Wyo- 
ming and  Montana  are  mainly,  though  not  entirely,  on  these 
mountain  plateaux  and  parks ; but  the  probabilities  are,  that 
there  will  be  enough  good  farming-lands  found  in  the  valleys 
and  parks,  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  large  mining,  herding  and 
non-producing  classes  who  are  even  now  filling  up  this  mountain 
region  with  great  rapidity.  The  wheat  and  other  grains,  Indian 


94 


FA MING  IN  THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS. 


corn,  sorghum  sugar,  root  crops,  and  vegetables,  milk,  butter,, 
and  cheese,  and  pork,  can  be  furnished  by  the  farmers,  as  well  as 
most  of  the  fruits,  while  the  herdsmen  can  furnish  the  beef  and 
mutton,  and  the  sportsmen,  the  game,  large  and  small ; but  there 
will  be  little  farm  produce  from  the  mountains  to  export. 

Much  of  what  is  grown  in  the  mountains  will  require  irriga- 
tion, and  with  it  will  yield  most  bountifully.  Even  the  best 
authenticated  statements  of  the  enormous  crops  produced  by 
irrigation  are  received  with  incredulity.  Seventy,  eighty,  and  in 
some  cases  even  one  hundred  bushels  of  wheat,  not  on  one  acre 
alone,  but  on  a tract  of  thirty  or  fifty  acres ; a like  amount  of 
barley ; eighty  to  a hundred  and  ten  bushels  of  oats ; and  from 
150  to  200  bushels  of  Indian  corn  ; 400,  500,  and  600  bushels  of 
potatoes  to  the  acre ; these  amounts,  incredible  as  they  seem,  are 
materially  below  what  is  claimed  for  these  lands,  some  of  which 
without  water  would  have  proved  utterly  barren  and  worthless. 
In  Montana  these  mountain  valleys  do  not  lack  water,  the  rain- 
fall being  there  sufficient  to  produce  good  crops,  and  the  whole 
retrion  aboundino-  in  streams. 

Between  the  western  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  ranges 
and  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  or,  as  they  are  called 
in  Oregon  and  Washington  Territory,  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
the  character  of  the  lands  varies  as  you  go  southward  from 
British  Columbia.  In  the  eastern  part  of  Washington  Territory 
and  Oregon,  the  lands  form  generally  a high,  treeless  plateau, 
moderately  fertile,  but,  except  in  the  river  bottoms,  generally 
better  adapted  to  grazing  than  to  cultivation.  Farther  south,  within 
the  limits  of  the  Great  Basin  which  includes  nearly  one-half  of 
Utah  and  Nevada,  the  area  of  cultivable  land  is  comparatively 
small,  though  by  means  of  irrigation  it  .is  much  increased;  con- 
siderable tracts  are  unfit  even  for  grazing  purposes,  but  these 
are  generally  good  mining-lands.  East  and  south  of  the  Great 
Basin  are  the  sources  of  the  Grand,  Green,  San  Juan  and  Little 
Colorado,  as  well  as  other  smaller  tributaries  of  the  Rio  Colorado 
of  the  West,  and  that  great  river  itself.  These  all  flow  through 
Western  Colorado,  Southeastern  Utah,  Western  New  Mexico 
And  Arizona,  in  such  deep  canons  that  they  leave  many  of  the 


MODERN  FARMING — PLOWING — SEEDING 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


C)5 

mesas  and  table-lands  of  these  territories  to  drought  and  sterility, 
except  where  irrigation  is  possible,  or  when,  as  in  the  autumn 
and  winter  of  1879-1880,  extraordinary  and  protracted  rains  de- 
luged the  country.  Yet  this  region  is  well  adapted  to  grazing, 
and  by  a scanty  irrigation  will  yield  the  crops  and  fruits  neces- 
sary for  the  sustenance  of  its  inhabitants.  In  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona  there  are,  with  irrigation,  a larger  amount  of  arable 
lands  than  has  hitherto  been  supposed. 

Governor  Fremont  writes  that,  in  the  summer  of  1879,  a little 
band  of  Maricopa  Indians,  near  Prescott,  who  had  taken  to 
farming,  sent  to  San  Francisco,  over  the  Southern  California 
road,  ten  car  loads, — 200  tons,  of  wheat  of  their  own  raising,  which 
was  of  such  excellent  quality  that  it  brought  J2.24  the  hundred 
pounds  when  the  usual  market  price  was  only  $2.10.  The  land 
on  which  such  wheat  could  be  grown,  in  an  unusually  dry  sea- 
son,  must  be  counted  arable. 

West  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascades,  we  find  a fine 
agricultural  region.  Western  Washington,  Oregon,  and  Califor- 
nia. This  is  the  land  of  gigantic  forest  trees,  the  sequoias,  the 
cedars,  firs,  and  loftiest  pines,  the  tulip  tree,  liquidambar  and 
other  forest  trees,  which  have  no  rivals  in  the  Northern  Hemis- 
phere. It  Is  also  the  land  of  wheat  and  barley,  of  Indian  corn 
and  oats,  of  the  vine,  and  its  abundant  wine  product,  as  well  as 
raisins  of  the  best  quality ; and  in  its  southern  portion,  of  the 
orange,  lemon  and  lime,  the  olive,  the  fig,  the  pomegranate,  and 
the  Madeira  nut  or  English  walnut,  and  the  French  and  Italian 
chestnut.  The  latter  Is,  in  Italy,  largely  cultivated  for  the  food- 
producing  quality  of  Its  nuts. 

The  wheat  crop  of  California  is  larger  than  that  of  any  other 
State,  ranging  from  36,000,000  to  50,000,000  bushels  annually, 
and  is  of  the  very  best  quality,  bringing,  in  European  markets, 
higher  prices  than  any  other.  It  never  rains  In  harvest-time  in 
California,  and,  on  the  large  grain  ranches,  the  giant  header  clips 
off  the  heads  of  the  wheat,  sweeps  them  into  the  huge  wagon- 
box  from  which  they  are  shot  into  'the  threshing-machine,  which 
is  geared  on  to  the  header,  and  the  reaping  and  threshing  are 
carried  on  simultaneously;  while  the  grain  as  It  comes  from  the 


g6  FA/^M/XG  ON  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE. 

threshing-machine  is  sacked  automatically,  and  the  sacks  are 
piled  in  heaps  in  the  field,  remaining  uninjured  in  the  pure, 
dry  air,  till  they  are  sent  to  market  or  shipped  for  Europe.  A 
large  part  of  the  crop  is  shipped  in  July.  Barley  is  also  a very 
important  crop,  California  producing  more  than  one-third  of  the 
whole  barley  crop  of  the  United  States,  and  nearly  three  times 
as  much  as  any  other  State.  Its  product  in  1878  was  about 
15,000,000  bushels,  an  average  of  twenty-three  bushels  to  the 
acre,  though  forty  to  sixty  bushels  is  not  an  unusual  product. 
The  production  of  oats  is  hardly  sufficient  to  supply  the  State 
demand,  being  but  4,350,000  bushels  in  1878,  though  consider- 
able dependence  is  placed  on  wild  oats,  which  are  used  largely 
for  hay.  Indian  corn  is  also  a small  crop,  about  3,500.000  bushels 
in  1878,  or  about  thirty-five  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  Alfalfa  and 
the  various  species  of  millet,  including  the  pearl  millet  and  the 
Dhourra  or  Egyptian  rice-corn,  are  cultivated  by  the  dairymen 
for  fodder.  Beans  are  largely  grown.  The  root  crops  are  more 
remarkable  for  enormous  growth  than  for  fine  flavor.  The 
sugar-beet  yields  several  crops,  and  contains  a high  percentage 
of  sugar.  Hops  are  also  an  important  crop,  and  other  minor 
crops  add  to  the  aggregate  of  production.  The  fruits  of  Cali- 
fornia have  a deservedly  high  reputation.  The  apple  must  yield 
the  palm  to  those  of  Oregon,  Washington',  or  the  States  and 
Territories  farther  East,  but  the  pear,  quince,  peach,  apricot, 
cherry,  orange,  lemon,  pomegranate,  fig,  prune,  plum,  olive,  cur- 
rant, strawberry,  blackberry,  raspberry,  banana,  plantain,  and 
pineapple  all  attain  a high  degree  of  excellence  and  a marvellous 
size. 

In  addition  to  the  native  grape  and  the  Mission  grape,  both 
of  which  are  very  largely  grown,  every  known  variety  of  grape 
found  in  Europe  or  America  is  cultivated  here,  and  both  in  the 
flavor  and  quality  of  the  fruit,  and  the  abundance  of  the  yield, 
they  all  greatly  surpass  their  product  where  they  are  native. 
The  production  of  raisins  was  at  first  a partial  failure,  in  conse- 
quence of  incomplete  drying,  but  having  learned  the  art  of 
drying  these  as  well  as  most  other  fruits,  the  raisins  of  the  sun, 
from  California,  in  their  recent  samples,  surpass  those  of  any 

10 


OUR  WESTEkiV  EMPIRE. 


97 


Other  part  of  the  globe.  The  dried -fruits  of  the  State,  after 
failures  from  careless  drying,  are  now  beginning  to  take  rank 
with  the  best  in  the  world.  The  California  wines  and  brandies 
have  not  till  recently  attained  to  their  best  condition.  They 
were  too  strongly  alcoholic,  fiery  and  heady,  and  were  put  upon 
the  market  before  they  had  had  sufficient  age  to  ripen  them. 
The  conditions  of  climate  and  dryness  were  not  taken  into  ac- 
count by  the  wine-growers,  and  the  Mission  grape  being  largely 
used  for  wine-making,  its  peculiar,  earthy  taste  impaired  the 
value  of  the  wine.  These  difficulties  have  been,  now,  in  a great 
measure  overcome,  and  the  present  and  future  vintages  of  Cali- 
fornia will  compare  favorably  with  the  best  wines  of  Europe, 
with  the  additional  advantage  of  being  purer.  The  California 
brandy,  when  it  has  a sufficient  age,  is  preferred  by  connoisseurs 
to  the  best  cognac.  There  is  yet,  however,  a considerable  im- 
portation, not  only  of  French  brandies,  but  of  the  lighter  and 
cheaper  French  wines,  especially  clarets,  which  might  be  made 
there  of  really  better  quality  than  the  imported  wines. 

Both  Oregon  and  Washington  Territory  contain,  besides  their 
great  amount  of  timber  lands,  and  their  extensive  ranges  for 
grazing,  large  tracts  of  fertile,  arable  lands.  There  is  no  lack 
of  rainfall  in  the  remon  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains.  At 

o 

some  points  the  skies  weep  too  constantly  for  successful  grain 
culture,  but  this  very  excess  of  moisture  gives  to  the  forests  a 
more  gigantic  growth,  and  to  the  grasses  a larger  and  more  vig- 
orous development.  For  the  most  part,  however,  Oregon  and 
Washington  are  well  adapted  to  the  culture  of  the  cereals. 
Even  Eastern  Washington  and  Oregon,  formerly  regarded  as 
a desert  and  rainless  region,  proves,  notwithstanding  its  whitish, 
alkaline  soil,  and  its  moderate  rainfall,  one  of  the  finest  wheat 
regions  in  the  world.  With  deep  plowing  no  irrigation  is  needed, 
and  the  wheat,  large,  full-berried,  and  of  the  very  best  quality, 
weighing  from  sixty-five  to  sixty-nine  pounds  to  the  bushel  (the 
legal  weight  is  sixty  pounds),  turns  out  from  thirty  to  sixty 
bushels  to  the  acre ; many  of  the  farms  averaging  from  forty 
to  fifty  bushels  for  their  entire  crop.  In  1879  the  wheat  crop 
of  Oregon  exceeded  10,000,000  bushels,  and  that  of  Washington 


98 


FOREST  GROWTHS. 


was  about  half  as  much,  simply  because  there  were  not  men 
enough  to  sow  a larger  crop.  All  the  small  grains,  rye,  oats, 
barley,  and  buckwheat  are  successfully  cultivated  there ; oats 
yielding  from  seventy  to  eighty  bushels  to  the  acre.  Indian  corn 
is  a tolerably  sure  crop  in  Oregon,  but  less  so  in  Washington 
on  account  of  the  cool  nights.  The  root  crops  yield  enormously, 
and  there  is  a ready  market  for  them  at  good  prices  at  home 
among  the  lumbermen,  fishermen,  and  manufacturing  population 
of  the  towns.  Flax,  though  cultivated  mainly  for  the  seed,  is 
of  excellent  quality,  the  lint  being  longer,  finer  and  silkier  than 
elsewhere.  Of  fruits,  the  apple  and  pear  are  unsurpassed,  and 
most  of  the  small  fruits  are  successfully  cultivated.  Oregon 
apples,  pears,  and  berries  command  a high  price  in  the  San 
Francisco  market. 


CHAPTER  XIL 

Timber  and  T. umber — Tree-Planting — The  Forest  Growths  in  diffekji,jmt 
Sections — California  Forests — Horticulture  and  Fruit-Culture — 
Floriculture — Wild  Flowers — Market  Gardening. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  a considerable  portion  of  this  Great 
West  is  but  scantily  supplied  with  forest  trees.  In  1871,  a 
careful  estimate  put  down,  in  these  twenty  States  and  Territo- 
ries, the  woodland,  as  covering  198,124,802  acres;  but  in  the 
nine  years  which  have  since  elapsed,  the  demand  for  railroad  ties 
and  structures,  for  bridges,  for  machinery,  partly  of  wood,  for 
mines,  for  dwellings,  and  public  buildings,  and  for  export,  has 
diminished  this  area  by  nearly  or  quite  twenty-five  per  cent. 
Minnesota,  Missouri,  Oregon,  and  Washington,  and  perhaps 
Texas,  and  Arkansas  to  a moderate  extent,  are  the  only  States 
or  Territories  that  export  lumber.  Montana  has  good  timber- 
lands,  but  she  is  not  as  yet  producing  more  than  lumber  enough 
for  the  home  demand.  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Dakota,  Kansas,  Wy- 
oming, Colorado,  Utah,  New  Mexico,  Arizona, and  Nevada,  have 
not  timber  and  lumber  enough  for  their  own  needs,  and  are 


OUR  WESI ERN  EMPIRE. 


99 


obliged  to  import  a large  share  of  what  is  consumed.  The 
Indian  Territory  has  a moderate  amount,  but  the  adjacent  rail- 
roads are  fast  consuming  it.  Idaho  has  considerable  forests  on 
its  mountains,  but  much  of  it  is  not  accessible.  The  gigantic 
forests  of  California  have  been  so  recklessly  wasted,  that  she  now 
imports  largely  of  timber,  lumber,  and  fire-wood.  In  the  prairie 
States,  liberal  premiums  have  been  offered  for  tree-planting  by 
the  State  authorities ; and  the  National  Government,  by  their 
Timber-Culture  Act  and  its  amendments,  have  sought  to  promote 
the  cultivation  of  forest  trees.  The  railroad  companies,  which 
have  large  land  grants,  have  also  encouraged  tree-culture.  But 
though  these  efforts  have  led  to  the  planting  of  some  millions  of 
trees,  many  of  them  die  the  first  or  second  year,  and  the  whole 
number  planted,  in  six  or  seven  years,  bears  but  a small  proper- 
tion  to  the  annual  destruction  of  the  forests. 

The  forest  growths  differ  materially  in  different  sections.  In 
the  northeast,  Minnesota  and  Northern  Dakota,  pine  is  pre-emi- 
nent, though  there  are  some  of  the  harder  woods  scattered 
through  the  forests.  In  Missouri,  cottonwoods,  and  the  bois  d'ai'c 
or  Osage  orange,  mingle  with  the  other  hard  woods  and  pine 
and  hemlock.  Montana  has  pines  and  firs,  and  some  oaks,  black 
walnuts,  maples,  etc.,  etc.  Oregon  and  Washington  are  remark- 
able in  their  western  halves  for  gigantic  firs,  and  have  also  a fair 
share  of  pines,  spruces,  red  cedars,  and  sequoias.  From  these 
and  the  almost  inexhaustible  forests  of  Alaska,  and  British 
Columbia,  the  Pacific  coast  will  probably  draw  its  supplies  of 
lumber  and  timber  for  many  years  to  come.  The  forests  of 
Eastern  and  Middle’  Texas,  and  Arkansas,  are  largely  composed 
of  hard  woods ; there  are  eight  or  ten  species  of  oak,  one  an 
evergreen,  though  not  the  genuine  live-oak  ; chinquepin,  hickory, 
black  walnut,  cherry  and  ash ; and  in  Northern  Arkansas  the 
tulip  tree  or  yellow  poplar,  the  sweet,  sour,  and  black  gum, 
cypress  and  the  Osage  orange,  etc.,  etc.  In  Northwestern  Texas, 
there  are  some  forests  of  pine  and  fir.  The  mountains  of  Ari- 
zona, Colorado,  and  New  Mexico,  are  generally  covered,  nearly 
to  the  snow  line,  with  evergreen  forests  (pitch,  yellow,  and  spruce 
pine),  but  the  trees  are  not  usually  of  such  gigantic  size  as  are 


lOO 


FOR ES T G KOI V7'HS 


found  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Along  the  streams  the  inevitable 
cottonwood,  locust,  buckeye,  box  elder  (iiegundo),  and  maple,  are 
found  in  moderate  quantities. 

The  forest  growths  of  California  are  (or  rather  were,  for, 
except  in  a few  of  the  counties,  they  are  rapidly  passing  away) 
for  the  most  part  wholly  unlike  those  of  the  region  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  Its  largest  trees,  the  sequoias,  are  of  the  red- 
wood or  cedar  family.  The  Sequoia  gigajitea  has  attained  in  some 
instances  to  a height  exceeding  450  feet,  and  very  few  of  them 
when  their  growth  was  attained  are  under  325  feet,  The  tallest 
now  standing  is  said  to  be  376  feet  in  height.  Their  circumfer- 
ence is  as  remarkable  as  their  height,  ranging  from  eighty  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty  feet.  The  largest  now  standing  measures 
1 06  feet  in  circumference  at  its  base.  The  Sequoia  sempervirens,  or 
redwood  of  the  Coast  Range  (the  Sequoia  gigaiitea  is  only 
found  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada),  is  but  little 
smaller  than  the  Sequoia  gigantea ; often  attaining  a height  of 
300  feet,  and  a circumference  of  from  sixty  to  eighty  feet.  The 
sugar  pine  (Pimis  Lambe7diana)  and  the  Douglas’  spruce  {Abies 
Douglasii)  both  attain  a height  of  250  to  300  feet,  with  a circum- 
ference of  forty  to  forty-five  feet.  The  California  yellow  pine 
{Puius  pondei'osa)  is  often  225  feet  high.  Sabine’s  or  the  nut- 
pine  (Pmus  Sabmiana),  the  western  balsam-fir  {Picea  graudis), 
and  the  white  cedar  {Libocedrus  decti7n'e7is)  all  attain  a height 
of  150  feet;  and  among  the  deciduous  trees,  the  burr  oak,  and 
the  western  chinquepin,  one  of  the  chestnut  family,  reach  125 
feet.  Many  other  trees  unknown  at  the  east,  some  of  them 
semi-tropical,  are  100  feet  or  more  in  height.  Two  of  the  oaks 
are  evergreens. 

The  trees  planted  or  raised  from  the  seed,  under  the  Timber, 
Culture  and  other  acts,  have  been  almost  entirely  of  the  rapidly 
growing  kinds,  the  cottonwood,  the  ailantus,  the  locust,  the  Osage 
orange,  the  vine,  maple,  and  white  maple,  etc.  Few  of  these  have 
much  value  for  timber,  but  most  of  them  are  good  for  fuel,  and 
some  make  moderately  durable  railroad  ties.  There  must  be 
added,  liowever,  to  this  list  of  trees,  planted  by  settlers,  one 
which  is  likely  to  prove  of  great  value  in  a sanitary  point  of  view, 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


lOI 


as  well  as  eventually  as  a timber  tree,  the  Eucalyptus  globulus, 
a tree  which  has  the  reputation  of  arresting  the  progress  of 
marsh  miasms,  and  of  rendering  the  regions  in  which  it  is  planted 
healthy.  Unfortunately,  this  species  is  not  hardy  above  latitude 
39°  or  40°  north,  but  some  of  the  other  species  of  Eucalyptus 
may  be  less  susceptible  to  the  cold.  One  species,  found  in  Aus- 
tralia, contests  with  the  Sequoia  gigantea  of  California,  the  title 
to  be  considered  the  largest  tree  in  the  world.  It  is  said  to  be 
at  least  of  greater  circumference. 

In  the  newer  portions  of  this  vast  region,  the  farmer  has  been 
so  intent  on  bringing  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  his  grain 
or  root  crops  to  market,  that  there  has  been  comparatively  little 
opportunity  for  developing  aesthetic  taste  in  the  cultivation  of  a 
flower-garden ; and  yet  in  sections  where  two  years  ago  the  sod 
was  unbroken,  the  grounds  around  the  often  humble  cabin  or 
sod-house  give  evidence  of  refinement  in  the  variety  of  flowers 
already  blooming  there.  In  Iowa,  Missouri,  Minnesota,  Nebraska, 
Kansas,  Texas,  California,  Oregon,  Nevada,  and  Eastern  and 
Central  Colorado  and  New  Mexico,  the  flower-gardens  are  often 
gay  with  beautiful  flowers,  of  kinds  unknown  at  the  East,  and  as 
often  redolent  with  the  sweetest  perfumes.  Many  shrubs,  which 
at  the  East  are  hardly  half-hardy,  and  cannot  in  our  climate  be 
preserved  through  the  winter,  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  Texas, 
become  trees  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet  in  height.  Among  these 
we  may  name  the  fuchsia  of  several  species,  with  its  beautiful 
flowers  of  crimson,  white,  scarlet,  yellow  and  blush ; the  helio- 
trope, with  its  rich  perfume,  which  becomes  a flourishing  tree; 
the  mignonette,  the  smilax,  here  so  delicate,  there  a hardy 
climber;  the  magnolia  grandiflora,  the  syringa,  there  a stately 
tree,  the  lily  family,  etc.,  etc. 

Wild  flowers  of  great  beauty  and  fragrance  abound  through- 
out all  this  region,  except  the  alkaline  or  sage-brush  lands,  the 
Llano  Estacado  and  the  dry  mesas  of  Arizona,  and  the  two  latter 
during  and  after  the  scanty  rains,  are  resplendent  with  brilliant 
blossoming  verdure,  and  during  their  dry  seasons,  the  cacti, 
though  of  uncouth  and  ungainly  forms,  produce  flowers  of  gor 
geous  hues,  and  some  of  them  of  wonderful  beaut)’ 


102 


MARA'El  GA/^DEJV/NG. 


As  'fo  kitchen  and  market-gardens,  they  are  found  most 
abundantly  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  towns  and  cities.  A large 
proportion  of  them  are  cultivated  by  Europeans,  the  Germans, 
perhaps,  being  most  numerous  among  the  larger  market-gar- 
deners. Their  products  are  of  almost  unlimited  variety:  cab- 
bage, cauliflower,  kohl-rabi,  onions,  leeks,  garlics,  early  sweet 
corn,  sweet  potatoes,  the  common  potato  of  many  varieties,  yams, 
okra,  gumbo,  asparagus,  celery,  spinage,  and  other  greens,  vege- 
table oysters,  egg-plants,  radishes,  lettuce,  artichokes,  turnips, 
beets,  mangel-wurzel,  ruta-baga,  carrots,  parsnips,  squashes, 
pumpkins,  muskmelons,  watermelons,  citrons,  cucumbers,  gher- 
kins, peppers,  the  flavoring  plants,  thyme,  summer-savory,  sage, 
endive,  peppergrass,  water-cresses,  parsley,  orange  leaves,  bay 
leaves,  etc.,  etc.  Many  of  them  deal  also  in  the  small  fruits  in 
their  season.  To  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  this  busi- 
ness in  Europe  or  in  the  Eastern  States,  there  is  a fine  field  for 
enterprise  here ; a very  few  acres  of  the  fertile  soil  are  sufficient, 
and  for  some  years  at  least,  and  in  most  cases  for  one  or  two 
generations,  no  manure  beyond  that  made  upon  the  place  will 
be  needed,  only  deep  and  thorough  tillage,  to  produce  such 
vegetables  as  cannot  be  produced  elsewhere. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  cultivation  of  the  Minnesota 
early  amber-cane,  or  sorghum,  and  of  the  great  impulse  which 
has  been  given  to  its  culture  within  two  years  past  by  the  dis- 
covery that  it  contains  its  largest  proportion  of  sugar,  and  almost 
its  only  crystallizable  sugar,  when  it  is  ripe ; and  have  shown 
that  not  only  can  the  seed  be  saved  by  waiting  till  this  time,  but 
that  the  yield  of  sugar  is  so  large,  and  is  produced  by  such  sim- 
ple processes,  that  it  is  the  most  profitable  crop  a farmer  can  raise, 
and  will  materially  diminish,  if  it  does  not  entirely  abolish,  the 
necessity  of  our  importing  immense  quantities  of  sugar  from  the 
West’Indies,  Dernerara,  Brazil  and  the  Sandwich  Islands.  Our 
importation  of  sugars  now  costs  us  ^100,000,000  annually.  We 
may  be,  within  ten  years,  and  possibly  within  five,  exporters  in- 
stead of  importers  of  raw  sugars. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  the  stalks  of  our  Indian  corn  yield, 
when  the  corn  is  ripe,  about  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  quan- 


SJLK-CUL  TURK. 


tity  of  sugar  produced  by  the  amber  sorghum  ; that  the  millets, 
the  Egyptian  rice  corn,  and  probably  broom  corn  also,  which  is 
largely  cultivated  in  some  portions  of  the  West,  yield  quite  as 
much  as  the  Indian  corn.  Here  is  a great  opportunity  fora  new 
and  lucrative  industry,  and  there  is  little  danger  of  overdoing  it. 

The  cultivation  of  the  millets,  and  especially  of  the  pearl  millet 
and  the  Egyptian  rice  corn,  already  introduced  into  Kansas  and 
some  of  the  other  States,  both  as  a forage  plant  and  for  the 
production  of  sugar,  and  the  increase  in  the  crops  of  Alfalfa, 
Lucerne,  Hungarian  grass,  and  possibly  some  of  the  other  forage 
grasses,  is  well  worthy  of  attention.  We  shall  have  more  to  say 
on  this  subject  In  connection  with  stock-farming.  The  yield  of 
forage  from  some  of  them  is  enormous. 

The  rearing  of  silk-worms  is  an  industry  which,  If  rightly  man- 
aged, might  be  made  very  successful.  It  does  not  require  a 
very  large  outlay,  but  will  be  best  conducted  by  colonies,  some 
of  the  members  of  which  have  been  practically  familiar  with  the 
business  elsewhere. 

There  is  necessary,  in  starting  the  business,  a plantation  of 
mulberry  trees,  but  this  need  not  be  large  at  first,  and  the  tree 
grows  very  rapidly.  The  white  mulberry  (^Mortis  alba)  is  per- 
liaps  the  best,  though  some  prefer  the  black  i^Morus  nigra)  or 
the  many-leaved  [Aforiis  multicaulis) A Other  trees  afford  food 
for  silk-worms,  such  as  the  Osage  orange,  regarded  by  many  as 
equal  to  the  mulberry,  the  allantus,  the  weeping-willow  (Salix 
Babylonica),  the  kllmarnock  willow,  some  of  the  osiers,  several 
species  of  oak,  and  the  garden  lettuce,  but  the  silk  Is  better  from 
the  mulberry  than  from  most  of  the  others,  and  if  well  managed, 
no  more  expensive.  When  the  mulberry  trees  are  large  enough 
to  furnish  a good  supply  of  leaves,  the  silk-worm  eggs  should  be 
procured,  and  the  purchaser  should  avoid  any  fancy  varieties,  of 
which  there  are  many  in  the  market,  but  should  confine  himself 
to  those  kinds  which  will  produce  the  large,  single  crop  sulphur 
yellow,  lemon  yellow,  or  white  cocoons.  These  in  the  long  run 

* M.  Boissiere  thinks  the  Lpoa  or  Japanese  mulberry  (Morus  japonica)  better  than  any  other, 
as  fourteen  and  a half  pounds  of  its  leaves  will  make  one  jiound  of  cocoons,  while  of  the 
white  mulberry,  twenty  pounds  are  required,  and  of  the  morettia  new  species  fifteen  pounds,  and 
the  rose  mulberry  seventeen  pounds. 


104 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


will  pay  best.  Shelves,  or  layers  of  brush,  separated  by  proper 
supports,  should  be  provided  for  feeding-  the  worms,  and  the 
feeding,  if  the  number  is  considerable,  will  keep  the  children 
pretty  busy  night  and  day  for  from  three  to  five  weeks.  When 
the  worms  are  ready  to  begin  to  spin,  the  brush  is  better  than 
shelves  or  frames.  When  the  cocoons  are  finished  a few  of  the 
best  shaped  and  largest  must  be  reserved  for  the  production  of 
eggs,  and  the  rest  “stilled;  ” i,  c.,  the  chrysalides  killed,  cither  by 
subjecting  them  to  the  fumes  of  camphor,  or  some  of  tlie  other 
iiydro-carbons,  or  to  steam  heat,  or  baking  them.  It  is  not  best 
for  the  families  to  reel  the  cocoons  themselves;  if  there  is  a 
colony  of  silk-growers,  somiC  of  them  will  probably  be  skilful 
reelers,  and  one  filature  or  reeling  establishment  is  enough  for  a 
hundred  silk-growers.  Machines  recently  invented  make  reeling 
on  a large  scale  easier  than  it  was,  and  if  the  silk-growers  bring 
their  cocoons  at  an  average  price  to  the  filature,  receiving  their 
pay  when  the  silk  is  reeled  and  sold,  a moderate  capital  only  will 
be  required.  ■ Raw  silk  is  not  so  bulky  as  to  make  its  transpor- 
tation very  expensive,  but  if  at  a distance  from  market  the  silk 
may  be  doubled,  twisted,  and  thrown,  or  brought  into  the  condition 
of  tram  and  organzine,  without  any  great  addition  to  the  cost. 
The  pierced  cocoons,  or  those  through  which  the  chrysalis  has 
escaped,  as  well  as  wild  silk-worm  cocoons,  if  there  are  any, 
and  the  floss  or  outside  silk  of  the  reeled  cocoons,  may  also  be 
utilized  in  such  an  establishment,  being  boiled  for  a long  time  in 
so^D  and  water,  cut  up,  carded  and  spun  to  form  the  spun  silk, 
or  Schappe.  Eventually  it  may  be  desirable  to  establish  a factory 
for  the  production  of  sewing  silk,  ribbons,  handkerchiefs,  fringes 
and  trimmings,  dress  goods,  satins,  laces,  or  velvets.  The  last  are 
not  as  yet  produced  in  this  country.  Cocoons  are  too  bulky  to 
bear  long  transportation,  and  the  only  successful  silk-culture 
must  either  be,  that  in  wliich  one  filature  with  skilled  reelers 
works  up  the  cocoons  from  a hundred  families  of  silk-growers, 
or  one  in  which  the  silk-worm  eggs  are  produced  for  the  market 
in  large  quantities.  There  is  an  active  demand  for  these  at  high 
prices,  but  even  if  the  business  was  conducted  with  only  this 
ond  in  view,  the  pierced  cocoons  might  be  utilized  with  jDrofit. 


C.LV  SILK-CULTURE  BE  MADE  TROE/JABLL  I jo5 

'One  aclv^antage  of  the  silk-culture  is,  that  it  occupies  but  a few 
weeks  of  the  year,  and  most  of  the  work  can  be  performed  by 
children,  while  other  farm  or  manufacturing  work  can  be 
prosecuted  during  the  remainder  of  the  year.  M.  Boissiere  has 
established  a cheese  factory  to  employ  his  operatives  the  remain- 
der of  the  year.  Conducted  as  we  have  indicated,  it  can  hardly 
fail  to  be  profitable  in  connection  with  the  cultivation  of  other 
crops.  The  silk-worm  disease  which  has  so  largely  reduced  the 
silk  product  of  Italy  and  France,  is  not  likely  to  be  introduced  here, 
but  the  silk-grower  should  select  localities  not  subject  to  frequent 
and  violent  storms,  or  to  severe  thunder-storms,  or  rapid  and 
extreme  changes  of  temperature  during  the  time  of  feeding,  as  the 
worm  is  then  very  sensitive,  and  easily  killed.  M.  E.  V.  Boissiere, 
the  French  silk-grower  and  manufacturer  already  mentioned,  has 
started  silk-growing  and  silk  manufacture  with  a colony  of  French 
silk-growers  on  a small  scale  at  Silkville,  Williamsburg  P.  O., 
Franklin  county,  Kansas,  and  after  a struggle  of  several  years, 
has  succeeded  in  producing  raw  silk  equal  in  quality  to  the  best 
French  and  Italian,  and  his  worms,  though  originally  from  the 
eggs  from  the  moths  of  diseased  worms,  have  proved  perfectly 
healthy.  A considerable  portion  of  the  raw  silk  produced  at 
•Silkville  is  reeled  by  hand  by  the  daughters  of  the  silk-growers, 
who  had  become  experts  in  reeling  in  France. 

The  cocoons  from  French  silk-worms  are  much  larger  and 
more  easily  reeled  than  those  from  Chinese  or  Japanese  worms, 
and  M.  Crozier,  M.  Boissiere’s  manager,  says  that  in  1878  the 
raw  silk  produced  there  brought  in  the  French  market  130 
francs  the  kilogram,  or  about  $10  a pound.  At  this  price  the 
raw  silk  affords  a better  profit  than  the  production  of  silk-worm 
eggs  for  market,  and  is  safer,  as  the  price  of  the  eggs  varies 
so  much,  and  the  demand  for  them  is  liable  to  be  below  the  sup- 
ply. In  1877,  France  alone  paid  1,691,400  francs  = ^338,28o  to 
this  country  for  silk-worm  eggs ; but  a part  of  these  proving 
worthless,  from  bad  management,  there  was  a decided  falling 
off  in  the  demand  in  1878  and  1879. 

But  the  price  of  raw  silk  also  fluctuates  widely,  ranging  within 
the  t©tt  years  1868-1878,  for  the  best  Italian,  from  $7.25  to 


Io6  OUR  WESTERN  ENT J RE. 

'^15;  for  the  best  Japanese  (Maibash)  from  $3.75  to  $9.12,  and 
for  the  Chinese  (Tsatlee  III.)  from  $4.25  to  $S  per  pound.  In 
1878  the  prices  were  still  lower,  averaging  at  the  close  of  the 
year  only  about  ^2.50  per  pound,  for  all  qualities,  European  and 
Asiatic.  It  has  since  advanced  materially.  To  command  the 
highest  price,  however,  the  raw  silk  must  be  reeled  .with  the 
greatest  care  and  skill,  so  as  to  make  a uniform  thread,  and  on 
this  account  it  can  never  be  done  successfully  by  inexperienced 
hands,  and  is  best  done  by  machines  with  skilled  reelers. 

The  great  increase  in  the  silk  manufacture  in  this  country 
will  create  a large  and  steady  demand  for  raw  silk,  and  if  it  can 
be  produced  at  paying  prices,  by  the  methods  we  have  indicated,, 
or  if  silk-factories  can  be  established  in  the  Western  States  and 
Territories,  which  will  combine  reeling  with  the  manufacture  of 
silk,  this  will  become  a favorite  industry  among  the  enterprising 
farmers  of  the  Great  West. 

Another  wide  field  for  enterprise  is  in  the  direction  of  the 
cultivation  of  a greater  variety  of  textile  fibres.  Even  flax  and 
hemp,  the  most  common  of  the  textiles  after  cotton,  have  not 
had  a fair  chance  in  the  West.  With  the  facilities  afforded  by 
our  unrivalled  machinery  for  the  breaking  of  flax  and  hemp, 
and  the  abundance  of  pure  water  for  bleaching,  Minnesota 
and  Dakota  ought  to  have  many  millions  of  acres  in  these  two 
crops. 

The  great  demand  for  paper  stock  should  cover  all  the  marsh 
lands  of  Missouri,  Nebraska  and  Kansas  with  Esparto  grass, 
tule,  marsh-mallow  or  the  cane-brake ; while  farther  south  the 
j)almetto  could  be  produced,  on  lands  now  considered  worthless, 
for  the  same  purpose.  The  vast  amount  of  wheat-straw  and 
wild  hay  of  Minnesota,  Dakota,  Nebraska  and  Kansas  might 
be  converted  into  paper  and  straw-board,  to  much  greater  profit 
than  is  gained  by  using  both  as  fuel  for  running  threshing- 
machines  and  factories.  The  new  invention,  by  which,  by  chem- 
ical saturation  and  powerful  compression,  straw-board  can  be 
made  into  an  artificial  wood  almost  as  hard  as  iron,  and  fit  for  all 
the  uses  of  the  best  ornamental  woods,  at  hardly  more  than  a 
tithe  of  their  cost,  ought  to  be  worth  millions  of  dollars  to 
those  States,  and  to  California,  where  the  straw  is  also  burned. 


TEXTILES. 


107 


But  the  production  of  textiles  is  not  limited  to  these  fibres. 
Ramie,  one  of  the  most  delicate  and  beautiful  of  textiles,  has 
been  raised  successfully  in  Texas  and  Arkansas.  Jute  is  even 
more  successfully  cultivated  throughout  the  entire  region  below 
forty-two  degrees,  and  there  is  a steady  and  large  demand  for 
it.  The  various  fibres  known  as  Tampico,  Honduras  grass, 
Panama  grass  and  Agave  fibre,  can  all  be  raised  easily  and  prof- 
itably in  Texas,  Arkansas,  Arizona  and  New  Mexico;  while  the 
over-abundant  cacti  of  Texas  and  Arizona  can  be  utilized  for 
the  production  of  strong  and  excellent  fibres  suited  both  for  rope 
and  bagging  purposes  and  for  paper  stock.  A species  of  cactus, 
which  grows  in  immense  jungles  or  '' chaparral'^  in  Southern 
California,  has  already  been  utilized  for  making  mattresses,  for 
which  its  beautiful  white  and  easily-curled  elastic  fibre,  fit  il 
admirably. 

The  Germans  have  achieved  a good  degree  of  success  in  cul 
tivating  ihe  nettle,  both  for  its  textile  fibres  and  as  a good  and 
desirable  fodder.  They  cultivate  their  native  plant,  the  Urtica 
dioica,  but  the  BceJune?da  nivea,  a Chinese  and  Indian  nettle,  from 
which  comes  the  China  grass,  or  Ramie,  is  said  to  be  better  wherci 
the  climate  is  not  too  cold.  A Canadian  species,  Urtica  Can- 
nabina,  is  also  highly  commended.  The  culdvation  is  very 
simple ; the  nettle  will  grow  on  the  very  poorest  land  (though, 
of  course,  larger  and  better  on  that  which  is  richer);  its  fibres 
are  finer  and  better  than  hemp,  and  fully  equal  to  the  best  flax, 
and  it  will  yield  from  300  to  500  pounds  of  white,  fine  fibre  to 
the  acre,  while  it  is  more  easily  hackled  than  either  fiax  or  hemp. 
It  is  worth  a trial.  The  fodder  can  be  saved  in  cutting  it  for 
the  fibre,  and  is  much  relished  by  cattle. 

Since  the  discovery  and  large  production  of  the  aniline  colors 
from  coal  and  gas  tar,  there  has  been  a decreasing  demand  for 
madder,  cochineal  and  other  vegetable  and  animal  dyes,  but 
there  is  yet  a considerable  call  for  them,  if  only  for  the  extrac- 
tion of  their  ultimate  coloring  principles.  Yet  the  cultivation 
of  madder  is  not  more  difficult  than  that  of  most  root  crops, 
and  where  it  is  grown  on  a large  scale  the  extraction  of  its  active 
principle,  alizarine,  will  afford  large  profit. 


io8 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


The  cochineal  is  composed  of  the  dried  bodies  of  insects, 
which  feed  upon  the  cactus,  and  the  most  widely  diffused  species 
of  it.  Their  entomological  name  is  Coccus  cacti,  and  beside  the 
usefulness  of  the  cactus  in  furnishing  textile  fibres,  it  can  be  util- 
ized to  any  required  extent,  in  Arizona  and  Western  Texas,  in 
rearinor  this  valuable  little  insect. 

o 

Another  new  direction  for  farming  industry  is  found,  in  the 
cultivation  of  oil-producing  plants.  The  olive  will  flourish  and 
yield  fruit  in  most  of  the  region  south  of  the  38th  parallel.  It 
endures  drought  well,  and  will  mature  its  valuable  fruit,  even  in 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico;  and  both  the  fruit  and  oil  will  com- 
mand a ready  market.  It  is  already  cultivated  to  some  extent  in 
California  and  Texas,  and  its  culture  deserves  to  be  greatly 
increased. 

The  extraction  of  oil,  and  the  sale  of  the  oil-cake  from  the 
cotton-seed,  is  an  industry  which  is  already  becoming  very  exten- 
sive in  Arkansas,  Louisiana  and  Texas,  and  is  a great  boon  to 
the  cotton-planter,  transforming,  as  it  does,  what  was  formerly  a 
nuisance  into  a valuable  product.  But  there  are  other  plants  and 
seeds  which  furnish  equally  valuable  oils,  and  which  may  be  cul- 
tivated with  very  little  labor.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the 
culture  of  flax  and  hemp  under  the  head  of  textiles:  but  the 
seeds  of  each  are  very  valuable  both  in  their  natural  condition, 
and  crushed,  or  ground,  and  pressed,  yielding  the  linseed  and 
hemp  oils,  so  valuable  in  the  arts,  and  the  oil-cake,  in  demand  for 
fattening  cattle,  and  increasing  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
milk  of  milch  cows.  Other  oil-producing  plants,  which  admit  of 
easy  cultivation  and  yield  a liberal  return,  are  the  Su7iflowe7\ 
which  yields  from  275  to  300  pounds  of  oil  per  acre,  and  an  ex- 
cellent oil-cake,  and  has  a deservedly  high  reputation  for  absorb- 
ing and  rendering  innocuous,  marsh  exhalations;  the  two  spe- 
cies of  colewort  (the  common  and  curled)  which  yield  from  650 
to  875  pounds  of  oil  to  the  acre,  and  almost  a ton  of  seed  ; the 
winter  and  summer  rape,  which  furnishes  also  good  fodder,  while 
the  seed  is  in  demand  aside  from  its  use  in  furnishing  oil ; the 
Swedish  turnip-seed,  and  the  turnip  cabbage-seed,  both  yielding 
a good  manufacturing  oil;  the  gold-of-pleasure  and  the  white 


OIL-PRODUCING  PLAN'IS. 


09 


poppy — all  of  these  yield  from  550  to  650  pounds  of  oil  to  the 
acre.  The  Sesamum  indiciim,  which  grows  well  in  the  region 
below  the  parallel  of  39^^,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  oil-pro- 
ducing plants  in  the  world.  It  yields  about  forty  per  cent,  of  oil, 
and  is  an  annual  of  simple  and  easy  cultivation.  The  black- 
seeded  variety  is  the  best.  It  is  sown  thinly  in  drills.  The  oil, 
for  all  medicinal  and  pharmaceutical  purposes,  is  fully  equal  to 
the  best  olive-oil,  and  keeps  for  many  years  without  becoming 
rancid.  It  is  preferred  in  the  East,  for  table  purposes,  to  the  best 
olive-oil,  and  from  its  freedom  from  smell,  is  much  used  for  ex- 
tracting the  perfume  of  fragrant  flowers.  The  expressed  cake 
is  mixed  with  honey  and  preserved  citron  as  a conserve,  and 
without  admixture,  furnishes  a food  for  bees.  It  is  already  cul- 
tivated to  some  extent  in  the  South. 

The  tar-weed  [Madia  saliva)  is  found  abundantly  on  the 
Pacific  Slope,  where  it  is  indigenous.  Its  seeds  contain  an  oil 
which  is  used  as  a salad-oil,  and  for  all  purposes  to  which  olive-oil 
is  applicable.  It  is  easily  cultivated,  and  yields  from  550  to  650 
pounds  of  oil  to  the  acre.  It  is  used  in  Europe  largely  to  mix 
with  olive-oil. 

But,  after  all,  the  most  profitable  of  the  oil-producing  plants 
for  cultivation,  is  the  ground  nut,  or  pea-nut,  usually  called 
goober  in  the  Southwest.  It  will  grow  on  light  or  gravelly 
soil,  and  with  decent  cultivation  should  yield  from  forty  to  sixty 
bushels  to  the  acre,  and  has  been  known  to  yield  from  120  to 
125  bushels.  The  whole  plant  is  valuable.  The  vine  makes 
excellent  forage  or  fodder,  the  tubers  or  nuts  are  much  in 
demand,  when  baked  or  roasted,  by  children  and  some  adults. 
The  oil  expressed  from  them  is  of  excellent  quality,  fully  equal 
to  olive-oil,  and  for  many  purposes  superior,  as  for  illuminating 
and  lubricating  purposes.  It  does  not  readily  become  rancid, 
and  is  very  sweet  and  delicate.  The  pea-nut  is  largely  imported 
into  France,  and  the  oil  expressed  there,  and  sold  as  the  best 
olive-oil.  The  oil  is  also  produced  largely  in  the  East  India 
Islands,  and  on  the  African  coast,  whence  it  is  exported  to  be 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  finest  soaps.  The  nuts  are  also 
ground  up  and  mixed  with  cacao,  for  the  manufacture  of  choco- 


I lO 


OUR  IVESTERX  EMPIRE. 


late,  and  in  the  production  of  chocolate  for  confectionery — the 
cacao  is  now  generally  omitted. 

Taking  all  its  uses  into  account,  there  is  hardly  a more  surely 
profitable  crop  than  pea-nuts,  especially  if  enough  engage  in  it  to 
warrant  the  erection  of  an  oil  mill.  The  price  of  nuts  per  bushel  * 
has  varied  in  the  past  from  sixty  cents  to  $2.25  ; but  they  are  not 
likely  to  fall  below  $1.25  per  bushel  hereafter.  The  yield  of  oil 
' is  from  forty  to  forty-five  per  cent,  of  their  weight. 

The  castor  bean  yields  a crop  which  always  has  a prompt, 
though  not  a very  high  market  value.  It  grows  readily  and 
rapidly,  and  the  gathering  of  the  crop  is  easily  accomplished.  It 
has  been  raised  to  a considerable  extent  in  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
Texas,  and  perhaps  some  of  the  other  States.  The  crop  seems 
to  have  been  carelessly  cultivated  or  gathered,  for,  on  soils  like, 
those  where  it  was  grown,  the  average  crop  should  be  at  least, 
twenty  to  twenty-five  bushels  to  the  acre,  while  in  very  few  in- 
stances did  it  exceed  fifteen  bushels,  and  in  the  majority  it  was 
only  ten  or  eleven.  The  price  paid  for  the  beans  was  about  one 
dollar  a bushel,  a price  which  gives  a very  large  profit  to  the 
mills  which  express  the  oil,  inasmuch  as  the  beans  should  yield 
forty-seven  per  cent,  of  oil.'-"'  With  more  care  in  cultivating  the 
crop,  and  a sufficient  number  engaged  in  raising  it  in  one  neigh- 
borhood to  sustain  a co-operative  mill  in  the  vicinity,  the  crop 
might  become  a tolerably  profitable  one. 

There  are  undoubtedly  some  districts  of  considerable  extent 
in  the  Great  West,  where,  under  favorable  circumstances,  both 
tea  and  coffee  might  be  successfully  cultivated,  the  former 
especially,  and  yet  we  hesitate  to  commend  it  as  a desirable  in- 
dustry, for  several  reasons ; it  requires  a considerable  invest- 
ment, though  not  all  in  one  year;  there  are  no  returns  under  six 
or  seven  years,  and  the  tea  gardens  must  be  sufficiently  extensive 
to  warrant  the  establishment  of  a large  factory  with  many 
employes  to  prepare  the  teas,  while  there  are  so  many  opportu- 
nities for  investing  capital,  which  will  bring  a quick  return,  that 

* It  is  probable  that  the  Ricitms  sanguinarius,  or  the  Ricinns  minor,  both  French  species  of  the 
castor  bean,  would  yield  more  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  more  oil  to  the  bushel,  than  the  Ricinm 
communis,  the  s])ecies  most  generally  cultivated  here. 


Y^A  AND  COFFEE  CULIURESUB-TROPICAL  FRUI'FS. 


1 1 r 


it  is  difficult  to  command  it  for  such  an  enterprise.  Further^ 
more  it  is  uncertain  whether  the  leaves  can  be  cured  in  such  a 
way  as  to  enable  them  to  compete  successfully  with  the  Assamese, 
Chinese,  and  Japanese  teas  ; and  even  if  they  were  superior  to 
them  in  flavor  and  quality,  whether  the  public  taste,  which  always 
prefers  foreign  to  home-made  productions,  would  regard  them 
with  favor.  The  coffee  plantations  require  a still  longer  period 
of  waiting  before  obtaining  the  first  crop,  though  there  is  less 
time  and  skill  required  in  its  preparation  for  the  market,  when 
it  is  brought  to  the  bearing  condition.  Coffee  is,  however, 
essentially  a tropical  production,  and  though  there  is  a possibility 
of  success  in  its  cultivation,  in  Southern  California,  Arizona,  and 
Southern  Texas,  there  is  hardly  sufficient  certainty  to  warrant  the 
outlay  necessary  to  make  it  a product  of  any  great  commercial 
value. 

There  remain  to  be  considered  the  fruit  and  nut-bearing  trees 
and  shrubs  which  admit  of  profitable  cultivation.  We  have 
already  spoken  of  the  olive,  valuable  alike  for  its  fruit,  its  oil  and 
its  beautiful  wood.  Its  cultivation  has  been  attempted  on  a 
small  scale  with  a fair  measure  of  success,  in  Texas  and  Southern 
California,  and  perhaps  also  in  New  Mexico.  It  was  cultivated, 
though  with  no  great  care  and  probably  not  of  the  best  varieties,  at 
the  Jesuit  Missions,  and  though  these  trees  from  long  neglect 
have  grown  wild,  they  would  furnish  stocks  for  grafting  the 
newer  varieties  upon.  It  is  probable  that  the  olive  might  be 
profitably  cultivated  in  all  the  region  south  of  the  39th  parallel, 
which  is  not  too  elevated.  It  is  worth  the  trial,  for  though  the 
numerous  substitutes  for  olive-oil  may  to  some  extent  reduce  its 
value,  yet  the  olive  has  too  many  good  qualities  ever  to  become 
an  unprofitable  tree.  The  orange  and  lemon,  which  have  become 
so  popular  and  profitable  in  F'lorida,  are  already  cultivated  to 
some  extent  in  Louisiana,  Texas  and  Southern  California,  and 
might  be,  if  they  are  not,  in  Southern  Arizona.  It  is  probable 
that  some  of  the  varieties  from  China  or  Persia,  if  not  the  several 
native  varieties,  might  be  cultivated  as  far  north  as  the  38th 
parallel,  though  most  of  them  would  be  injured  by  the  occasional 
severe  frosts  which,  at  rare  intervals,  extend  almost  to  the  Gulf 


I 12 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


coast  of  Texas.  One  species,  the  Citrus  Japonica^  or  Kum-quat, 
bears  a small  but  excellent  orange,  and  is  perfectly  hardy.  The 
lemon  is  not  as  hardy  as  the  orange,  but  its  culture  is  even  more 
profitable.  The  shaddock,  or  large  bitter  orange,  and  the  Seville, 
or  bitter  orange  of  the  south  of  Europe,  are  both  more  hardy 
than  most  of  the  sweet  varieties,  but  their  fruit  is  less  profitable.. 
The  citron,  from  the  thick  peel  or  rind  of  which  the  preserved 
citron  of  conimerce  is  prepared,  is  not,  we  believe,  cultivated  on 
this  continent,  and  its  culture  is  diminishing  in  Europe.  When 
an  orange-grove  is  not  in  danger  of  frost  it  becomes  in  time 
immensely  profitable,  but  it  yields  very  little  (and  it  is  better 
that  it  should  not  mature  any)  fruit  till  it  is  ten  years  old.  From 
the  tenth  to  the  twentieth  year  it  will  yield  every  year  a good 
and  constantly  increasing  crop  of  fruit,  and  a still  larger  one 
each  year,  from  the  twentieth  to  the  thirtieth  year.  In  an  ordinar- 
ily healthy  growth,  without  forcing,  it  does  not  attain  its  full  matur- 
ity till  about  its  thirtieth  year.  We  have  not  deemed  it  necessary, 
in  the  case  of  either  the  tea  or  the  orange-culture,  to  go  into 
details,  in  regard  to  the  processes  of  cultivation,  or  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  products  for  the  market.  In  the  case  of  the  tea, 
these  are  not  well  settled,  and  in  that  of  the  orange  and  lemon, 
different  climates  and  different  varieties  require  diverse  treatment. 
Those  who  contemplate  their  culture  will  be,  necessarily,  persons 
having  considerable  capital  at  command,  and  they  will  do  well 
to  make  a special  study  of  the  subject,  before  investing.  For 
this  purpose,  there  are  numerous  essays  and  treatises  to  be  had, 
some  of  them  giving  the  results  of  careful,  protracted,  and 
intelligent  experience. 

The  pomegranate  is  already  cultivated  in  California  and  Texas, 
as  well  as  in  the  Gulf  States  east  of  the  Mississippi.  Its  delicious 
fruit  finds  a ready  market  at  good  prices,  and  the  imperfect  fruit 
is  in  demand  for  the  manufacture  of  citric  acid.  It  is  capable  of 
successful  cultivation  in  all  the  region  south  of  the  39th  parallel, 
except  those  portions  which  are  too  elevated  or  too  dry  for  fruit- 
culture. 

The  cultivation  of  the  fig  is  not  new  in  California,  Arizona, 
Texas,  Arkansas,  or  Louisiana,  but  it  is  capable  of  great  exten- 


INDIGENOUS  AND  I^OKEIGN  NUTS  AND  ERUITS. 


1 1 3: 

sion,  and  could  be  profitably  grown,  either  for  the  fresh  or  dried 
fruit  in  Southern  Kansas,  Southern  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Ari- 
zona (wherever  irrigation  is  possible,  or  there  is  sufficient  rain- 
fall), and  nearly  the  whole  of  California.  There  are  few  fruits 
which  yield  as  good  a return  from  a small  expenditure  of  labor- 
The  banana,  plantain,  pine  apple,  guava,  and  other  tropical  fruits,, 
flourish  in  the  southern  counties  of  Texas  and  Southern  Califor- 
nia, though  they  are  at  rare  intervals,  even  there,  affected  by 
frost.  The  papaw,  our  indigenous  fruit  of  the  banana  family,  is, 
hardier  and  ripens  regularly  in  all  the  region  south  of  the  40th 
parallel.  It  is  worth  cultivating,  and  might  be  so  improved  as  to^ 
be  a rival  of  the  plantain.  The  indigenous  nut-bearing  trees  and; 
shrubs,  the  hickory-nut,  butter-nut,  black  walnut,  chestnut,  beech- 
nut, and  hazel-nut,  in  the  North ; the  pinon  or  edible  nut  of  one 
of  the  species  of  pine  in  the  region  west  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  the  pecan  nut,  chinquepin,  and  filbert,  which,  though 
not  indigenous,  grows  wild,  in  the  South,  are  all  capable  of  exten- 
sive propagation,  though  the  chestnut  only  thrives  on  soils  of  a 
particular  quality.  The  pecan  is  one  of  the  best  of  our  indige- 
nous nuts,  and  grows  on  a shrub  or  bush  of  moderate  height. 

The  foreign  nuts  which  are  already  partially  introduced,  and 
which  are  likely  to  prove  profitable  in  cultivation,  are  : 1.  The  Eng- 
lish walnut,  sometimes  called  also  the  Madeira  nut,  a fine,  stately 
tree,  which  at  twelve  years  of  growth  yields  a large  crop  annu- 
ally of  the  very  fine  nuts  we  know  as  English  walnuts.  2.  The 
Italian  chestnut,  whose  large  nuts  yield  a nutritious  flour,  and 
one  which  keeps  well  for  two  years  or  more.  In  Tuscany  and 
Lucca,  there  are  several  millions  of  these  trees,  and  the  flour 
from  the  chestnuts  furnishes  the  principal,  and  sometimes  the 
entire  farinaceous  food  of  many  thousands  of  the  inhabitants. 
This,  too,  is  a stately  tree,  and  proves  easy  of  culture  here,  while 
it  may  be  readily  grafted  upon  our  native  chestnut.  It  is  admir- 
ably adapted  to  the  western  slopes  of  our  mountains,  and  will 
thrive  luxuriously  there.  3.  The  almond,  which  being  a con- 
gener of  the  peach,  thrives  wherever  the  peach  can  be  success- 
fully cultivated.  The  soft-shell  almond  is  not  as  hardy  as  the 
hard-shell,  and  a sharp  frost  is  fatal  to  either ; but  in  Southern 


OUR  IVES/ERX  EMPIRE. 


II4 

California,  Arizona,  Southern  New  Mexico,  and  Texas,  both  can 
be,  and  are  successfully  cultivated.  The  pistachio  nut  is  also  on 
trial,  and  will  probably  prove  successful.  Of  other  fruit-bearing 
shrubs  and  trees,  we  may  name  the  Japanese  persimmon,  lately 
introduced,  and  said  to  be  an  excellent  fruit,  much  superior  to 
our  native  species,  which  however  has  some  good  qualities;  the 
carob,  a legume-bearing  tree,  whose  pods  and  beans  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  husks  fed  to  the  swine,  in  the  parable  of 
the  prodigal  son  ; the  jujube,  whose  pulp  forms  the  material  for 
the  jujube  paste  of  commerce,  and  the  mezquite,  indigenous  in 
Texas,  whose  bark  and  root  yield  tannin  in  large  quantities, 
whose  pods  furnish  a nutritious  food,  and  whose  gum’  is  almost 
identical  with  orum  tra^jacanth. 

Of  trees  and  shrubs  containing  laroe  amounts  of  tannin  or 
tannic  acid,  besides  the  mezquite,  there  are  five  or  six  species  of 
the  rhiis  or  sumac  ; four  at  least  native,  and  containing  from  eight 
to  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  tannin,  and  two  foreign,  the  Venetian 
and  the  Sicilian  sumac,  which  contain  a little  more.  These  are 
both  cultivated  here."^  The  wattle,  an  Australian  tree  of  the 
acacia  family,  of  which  there  are  two  species — the  golden  and  the 
black  wattle.  Acacia  pycnantha  and  decurrens — is  also  a valuable 
tree  for  the  tannin  its  bark  produces.  It  attains  its  full  growth 
in  ten  years,  yields  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  per  cent,  of 
tannin,  and  its  wood  is  valuable  for  fences,  for  tools,  and  for  fuel, 
being  nearly  or  quite  equal  to  hickory,  for  the  last  purpose.  It 
grows  in  dr)'  soils,  and  in  almost  rainless  regions,  and  would  be 
of  great  value  for  planting  on  the  plains  under  the  Timber- 
Culture  Act. 

All  the  species  of  Spircea  contain  a large  percentage  of 
tannin.  Some  of  these,  as  the  Spircpa  toinentosa,  or  common 
hardback,  and  Spii'cpa  alba,  or  white  hardback,  are  common 
weeds,  and  can  be  easily  raised  on  the  poorest  lands,  yielding 
three  to  five  tons  to  the  acre.  The  extract  from  this  would  be 


* We  are  not  aware  that  the  bark  of  the  ailantus  has  ever  been  tested  for  tannin,  but  as  i> 
belongs  to  the  sumac  family,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  may  be  somewhat  rich  in  that 
principle.  If  it  should  prove  to  be,  its  rapid  growth  would  make  it  nearly  as  valuable  as  the 
wattles  of  w’hich  mention  is  made  above. 


CATTLE  DRIVERS  ROUNDING  A HERD 


-■•v: 


TREES  AND  SHRUBS  CONTAINING  TANNIN 


I I 5 

superior  to  the  best  bark  extract.  The  foreign  species  are  of 
larger  growth  and  are  much  cultivated  as  ornamental  shrubs.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  they  contain  a larger  proportion  of  tannin 
than  the  native  species. 

New  forms  of  industry  and  profitable  labor  in  connection  witli 
farming,  are  constantly  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  public, 
some  of  them  valuable,  others  valueless ; but  those  which  have 
been  detailed  in  this  chapter  are  sufficiently  numerous  to  satisfy 
any  ordinary  ambition ; they  have  all-  been  tested,  and  none  of 
them,  like  the  cultivation  of  the  opium  poppy,  which  has  been 
commended  by  some  writers,  are  of  a character  which  will  in- 
jure rather  than  benefit  mankind. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  vast  extent  of  grazing  lands 
found  In  this  great  Western  Empire.  What  is  the  actual  area 
of  these  lands  can  only  be  approximately  estimated,  since  every 
year  large  districts,  previously  supposed  to  be  only  available 
for  grazing  and  almost  worthless  even  for  that  purpose,  are 
found  to  be  susceptible  of  cultivation,  and  to  yield  immense 
crops  when  subjected  to  culture.  There  are,  furthermore,  many 
tracts  which  have  not  yet  been  surveyed  and  are  really  unex- 
plored even  by  the  Indian,  or  the  hunter  and  trapper ; in  some, 
and  perhaps  many,  of  these  there  are  beautiful  valleys,  narrow, 
yet  covered  with  a rich  and  succulent  herbage,  which  will  fatten 
and  nourish  large  herds  of  cattle.  As  nearly  as  we  can  estimate, 
there  must  be  somewhat  more  than  a million  of  square  miles  of 
these  grazing  lands ; enough  to  supply  the  whole  world  with 
beef,  mutton,  leather,  and  wool. 

Most  of  the  States  and  Territories  have  considerable  tracts  of 
grazing  lands,  but  the  stock-growing  regions,  par  excellence,  are 
Dakota,  Montana,  a part  of  Idaho,  Eastern  Washington,  and 
Oregon,  California,  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Western 
Nebraska,  Western  Kansas,  the  Indian  Territory,  and  Western 
Texas.  Texas  has  at  present  larger  herds  of  cattle  than  any 
other  section,  and  exports  live-stock  and  the  carcasses  of  slaugh- 
tered beef  in  refrigerator  steamers  to  Europe  in  large  quantities; 
but  the  finest  beeves  sent  to  our  Eastern  markets  and  to  Europe 


J J 5 STO  CK-  RA ISING  A ND  CAITLE- HERDING. 

are  those  from  Colorado,  Western  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  Mon> 
tana,  Dakota,  and  Wyoming.  The  native  grasses  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  parks  and  valleys  are  unrivalled  for  their  nutritive 
qualities,  and  cattle  fed  on  them  will  fatten  with  but  very  little 
grain.  When  the  immigrants  began  to  pour  into  the  Pike’s  Peak 
region  in  great  numbers,  in  1858  and  1859,  many  of  them. lost 
everything  except  their  cattle,  and  in  their  despair,  finding  these 
unable  to  draw  their  loads  any  further,  they  unyoked  them  and 
turned  them  out  into  the  parks  and  grazing  lands  of  that  region 
to  shift  for  themselves,  believing  that  they  would  not  be  able  to 
endure  the  fast  approaching  winter.  The  cattle  went  off,  and 
for  several  months  nothing  was  seen  of  them.  The  settlers  at 
length  started  out  to  find  their  bones,  but  to  their  great  surprise 
found  them  not  only  alive,  but  fat  and  sleek  from  the  nutritious 
buffalo  and  gamma  grasses,  which,  though  cured  by  the  sun,  re- 
tained  all  their  sweetness  and  nourishment. 

In  most  of  this  Rocky  Mountain  region  there  is  no  winter 
shelter  for  cattle,  and  they  hardly  need  any  oftener  than  one 
winter  in  ten.  A few  of  the  more  prudent  stockmen  put  up 
rough,  cheap  sheds,  and  cut  with  a mowing-machine  a score  or 
two  tons  of  the  natural  grasses,  against  a long  or  cold  storm  ; 
but  it  is  so  seldom  that  these  precautions  are  necessary,  that 
their  fellow-stockmen  laugh  at  them  for  their  carefulness.  Even 
in  Montana  and  Dakota  the  pasturage  grounds  are  so  seldom 
visited  by  severe  or  desolating  storms,  that  provision  for  them 
is  the  exception  and  not  the  rule.  In  Oregon  and  Washington 
somewhat  greater  attention  is  paid  to  the  sheltering  of  the 
stock,  but  in  California  no  effort  is  made  in  that  direction. 

“ Westward  the  course  of  empire  takes  its  way; 

The  four  first  acts  already  past, 

A fifth  shall  close  the  drama  with  the  day ; 

Time’s  noblest  offspring  is  the  last.” 

So  wrote  Bishop  Berkeley  more  than  a hundred  and  fifty 
years  ago,  when  this  Great  Western  Empire,  which  we  have 


GKOWni  AND  FUlURE  CARA  C/7' V. 


it; 


endeavored  to  describe,  was  utterly  unknown  to  the  civilized 
world,  except  from  the  reports  of  adventurous  navigators  who  had 
touched  upon  its  southern  or  western  shores,  or  the  journals  of 
Jesuit  missionaries,  who  had  established  themselves  in  California, 
New  Mexico,  and  Texas,  or  the  few  hunters  and  trappers  who  had 
penetrated  up  the  Missouri  or  its  tributaries.  The  empire  which 
he  then  saw  in  vision  (for  he  had  not  at  the  time  of  the  publi- 
cation of  this  poem  visited  America)  was  composed  of  the 
colonies,  which  lay  between  the  Appalachian  range  and  the 
Atlantic.  A population  of  not  more  than  1,200,000  was  the 
nucleus  of  the  future  empire. 

Yet  in  this  mere  handful  of  people  scattered  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  from  Maine  to  Georgia,  lay  the  germ  of  the 
grandest  empire  this  world  has  ever  seen — an  empire  destined  to 
realize  in  altogether  another  sense  than  the  late  British  premier 
gav^e  tu  it,  when  he  quoted  a few  months  ago,  the  dictum  of  the 
great  Roman  orator, — I7nperiu77t  et  Libe7^tas,  Here  is,  and  is  to 
be,  the  e77tpire  in  its  vastness  of  extent,  its  teeming  population,  its 
immensity  of  resources,  its  ripe  and  universal  culture,  and  its 
moral  power  over  the  nations  of  the  earth,  and  united  with  this 
the  lioerty  which  is  the  right  and  privilege  of  a great  people — a 
liberty  which  is  not  license,  but  law  ; a government  ^the  people, 
for  the  people,  and  by  the  people.  And  of  this  great  empire,  the 
portion  largest  in  population,  most  abundant  in  resources,  and 
foremost  in  all  great  enterprises  is  to  be  the  region  lying  between 
the  Mississippi  river  and  the  Western  Sea.  To-day,  this  region 
has  more  than  eleven  millions  of  inhabitants.  In  a.  d.  1900  it  will 
have  fifty  millions.  In  a.  d.  1950  who  shall  say  how  many  ? The 
capacity  of  the  country,  in  point  of  production,  to  sustain  human 
life,  has  never  yet  been  tested ; but  if,  when  our  arable  lands  are 
not  one-twentieth  developed,  and  our  grazing  lands  can  feed 
twenty  times  the  cattle  and  sheep  now  there,  we  are  feeding 
fifty  millions  at  home,  and  nearly  twenty-five  millions  in  Europe, 
what  can  we  not  do  when  our  resources  are  tasked  to  their  full 
extent  ? 

But  where  shall  we  begin  to  speak  of  the  future  of  this  goodly 
heritage,  with  which  God  has  endowed  this  Nation  ? We  have 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


Il8 

told  you  of  its  present  varied  but  beneficent  climate,  with  its 
western  Gulf  stream  from  the  north,  bringing  mild  and  genial 
breezes  to  the  Pacific  shore ; of  its  torrid  heats,  coming  up  from 
Mexico,  to  be  tempered  by  the  Arctic  cold  from  the  Valley  of  the 
Red  river  of  the  North.  Is  there  to  be  an  improvement  in  its 
climates?  We  fully  believe  so.  The  vast  plains  beaten  almost 
to  the  solidity  of  stone  by  the  hoofs  of  the  buffalo  for  many 
hundred  years,  are  being  rapidly  broken  up  by  the  plow,  and 
warmth  and  moisture  penetrate  the  soil.  The  rainfall'  is  in- 
creasing, and  these  treeless  plains  are  fast  becoming  clad  with 
groves  and  islands  of  forest  trees,  which  will  turn  what  was  once 
a desert  into  a fertile  field.  The  mesas  and  plateaux  beyond  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  drained  of  their  moisture  by  the  deep  canons, 
cut  by  the  rivers,  were  once  densely  inhabited,  and  again,  by  the 
planting  of  forest  trees,  and  the  boring  of  drive  and  artesian 
wells,  their  capacity  for  cultivation,  and  for  sustaining  a large 
population,  drawn  thither  by  their  mineral  wealth,  will  be  fully 
restored,  and  the  region  so  long  remarkable  for  its  intense  heat 
in  summer  will  enjoy  an  equable  temperature. 

Are  we  to  look  for  any  improvement  in  the  soil  and  its  culti- 
vation ? There  is  every  reason  to  expect  it.  The  greater  rainfall 
will  render  those  lands  arable,  which  have  not  hitherto  been  con- 
sidered so ; and  irrigation,  which  is  only  yet  in  its  infancy,  will 
develop  the  best  qualities  of  a soil,  whose  fertility  is  almost 
incredible.  Deep  plowing  and  careful  seeding  should  largely 
increase  the  grain  crops,  and  the  use  of  forage  grasses  and 
cotton-seed  cake  give  opportunity  for  much  larger  herds  of 
cattle  and  sheep  on  smaller  ranches,  than  the  great  herds  now 
occupy.  All  these  changes  will  come,  for  the  spirit  of  en- 
terprise and  improvement  is  rife  among  these  western  citizens. 
It  is  difficult  to  predict  to  what  points  the  tide  of  immigration 
will  flow  most  strongly  during  the  twenty  or  fifty  years  to  come. 
The  extraordinary  efforts  made  by  the  railway  companies,  which 
have  lands  to  sell,  have  had  a great  influence  in  directing  it 
toward  certain  States  and  Territories.  The  railway  companies  of 
Minnesota,  the  Northern  Pacific  and  its  feeders,  have  made  known 
to  immigrants  both  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  the  great 


LEAD/NG  FACTORS  OF  I MMIG RATIO iW. 


II9 

advantages  offered  by  the  climate,  soil,  and  manufacturing  privi- 
leges of  Minnesota,  and  especially  the  great  fertility  and  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  Red  River  valley,  and  the  lands  adjacent  in 
Dakota ; while  other  railroad  companies  in  Iowa  and  Southeast- 
ern Dakota  have  commended  the  farming  lands  of  that  section. 
The  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway,  with  its  extensive  con- 
nections, the  Wabash,  and  the  Chicago  and  Burlington,  all  of 
them  connected  with  the  Union  and  Central  Pacific  Railways, 
as  well  as  the  latter  roads  themselves,  have  rendered  great 
service  to  Iowa,  Nebraska,  and  Northern  Kansas,  and  Colorado, 
as  well  as  to  the  Territories  beyond.  So,  too,  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  and  Santa  P^e  Railway  has  been  so  important  a factor 
in  the  settlement  of  Southwestern  Kansas,  and  Southern  Colo- 
rado, that  it  is  within  the  bounds  of  truth  to  say  that  it  has  hast- 
ened their  development  by  more  than  twenty  years.  The  roads 
extending  from  Missouri,  through  Arkansas  and  the  Indian  Ter- 
ritory into  Texas,  as  well  as  the  Texan  roads  themselves,  have 
added  three-fourths  of  a million  of  souls  to  the  population  of 
that  State  within  the  past  ten  years.  On  the  Pacific  Slope  these 
agencies  have  not  been  so  actively  at  work,  but  they  are  now 
fast  developing  at  the  Northwest  in  Oregon  and  Washington, 
and  at  the  Southwest  in  Southern  California,  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico. 

The  wonderful  development  of  the  mines  in  Colorado,  Mon- 
tana, Utah,  and  the  Black  Hills,  has  contributed  largely  to  the 
influx  of  population  into  those  sections,  within  the  past  three  or 
four  years.  There  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  the  discov- 
eries of  the  precious  metals  in  these  States  and  Territories  are 
as  yet  only  in  their  infancy,  and  that  they  will  go  on  for  years  to 
come  with  increasing  magnitude  each  year;  while  New  Mexico, 
Arizona,  Texas,  Idaho,  and  Nevada,  with  its  added  facilities  from 
its  Sutro  and  other  tunnels,  and  possibly  Eastern  Oregon  and 
Washington,  will  fill  up  the  measure  of  prosperity  in  this  direc- 
tion to  overflowing. 

It  is  vain  to  attempt  to  predict  the  quantities  of  gold  and  silver 
which  will  be  produced  in  this  region  within  the  next  fifty  years : 
we  only  know  that  already  the  yield  of  silver  has  disturbed  the  pro- 
14 


1 20 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


portionate  value  of  silver  and  gold,  which  had  existed  for  the  last 
five  hundred  years,  when  fifteen  ounces  of  silver  would  purchase 
an  ounce  of  gold.  Now  the  ounce  of  gold  is  worth  more  than 
fifteen  and  a half  ounces  of  silver,  and  with  our  vastly  increased 
production  it  will  soon  require  sixteen  ounces  to  purchase  an 
ounce  of  gold. 

The  prevalent  opinion  among  the  best  mining  geologists  is 
that  the  western  and  some  of  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  ranges 
composing  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain,  and  the  spurs  running  east 
and  west  from  it,  are  charged  with  lodes  or  veins  of  gold  and 
silver-bearing  ores;  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the 
eastern,  and  perhaps  the  western  slope,  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
through  its  whole  extent,  is  equally  rich  in  these  ores.  They 
have  been  traced  as  far  north  as  the  line  of  British  America,  and, 
indeed,  beyond  it;  they  exist  in  Montana,  Idaho,  and  Eastern 
Oregon,  and  Washington,  in  Nevada,  Utah,  and  Wyoming,  in 
Colorado,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona  (in  the  last  three,  perhaps, 
most  abundantly  of  all),  and  in  Western  Texas.  The  valuable 
mines  of  California  are  mostly  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  though  a few  are  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Coast  Range. 

If  this  opinion  of  the  geologists  shall  prove  to  be  correct  there 
is  nothing  to  prevent  the  opening  of  three  hundred  thousand 
mines,  all  profitable,  if  well  managed,  and  a yield  of  one  thousand 
millions  of  gold  and  silver  annually.  Such  a yield  could  not  fail  to 
produce  two  results  : the  further  disturbance  of  the  ratio  between 
the  values  of  gold  and  silver,  since  the  production  of  silver  will 
be  far  greater  in  bulk,  and  probably  greater  even  in  value,  than 
that  of  gold ; and  a universal  advance  in  the  price  of  other  com- 
modities, or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  a depreciation  of  the  pur- 
chasing power  of  gold. 

But  it  is  not  solely  in  the  so-called  precious  metals  that  the 
production  will  be  so  greatly  increased;  lead  is  combined  with 
silver  in  certainly  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  ores ; copper  and  zinc 
with  both  gold  and  silver  in  a very  considerable  proportion,  and 
iron,  platinum,  osmium,  and  other  rare  metals  in  a small  num- 
ber. But  all  these  metals,  or  rather  their  ores,  are  found  in 


INCREASE  OF  METALLURGICAL  DEVELOPMENI'. 


121 


great  abundance  without  any  admixture  of  the  precious  metals, 
and  the  ores  of  lead,  copper,  zinc,  and  iron  are  capable  of  im- 
mense development.  Another  decade  will  see  copper  ores 
reduced,  and  the  copper  refined,  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  mines,  in  such  quantities  that  there  will  be  no  necessity 
of  importation  of  that  metal,  and  still  less  of  sending  the  concen- 
trated ores  to  Swansea,  or  anywhere  else,  for  reduction.  Iron 
and  steel  will  be  made  so  abundantly  and  cheaply  from  the  very 
best  ores  and  by  the  best  processes,  that,  instead  of  importing 
either  to  supply  our  greatly  increased  demand,  we  shall  export 
both  iron  and  steel  to  all  the  nations  around  us.  Before  the 
dawn  of  the  twentieth  century,  tin  will  be  the  only  metal  we  shall 
have  occasion  to  import ; and  if,  as  seems  probable,  the  small 
veins  of  tin  already  discovered  in  California,  Nevada,  Utah,  Col- 
orado, and  Texas  shall  enlarge  as  they  go  deeper  into  the  earth, 
this,  too,  may  be  stricken  from  the  list  of  our  imports.  Platinum, 
nickel,  aluminium,  all  destined  to  play  an  important  part  in  our 
manufactures,  in  the  near  future,  exist  here,  and  can  be  produced 
as  cheaply  as  anywhere  else  in  the  world. 

All  the  metallic  and  mineral  earths  and  elements  used  in 
medicine,  chemistry,  farming,  or  the  useful  arts,  and  all  the  salts 
of  these,  either  exist  as  the  natural  productions  of  this  region,  or 
are  capable  of  easy  transformation  into  the  compounds  adapted 
to  use. 

Of  other  mineral  products,  coal  exists  in  too  large  quantities, 
and  of  every  known  quality  and  variety,  to  make  any  lack  of  it 
possible  for  ages  to  come  ; whether  required  for  the  production 
of  heat  or  steam,  for  manufacturing  or  for  smelting,  for  coking 
coal  for  the  production  of  iron  and  steel,  or  for  family  use,  an- 
thracite, semi-anthracite,  bituminous,  semi-bituminous  and  lig- 
nites, in  all  these  forms,  are  to  be  had  for  the  asking,  at  reason- 
able prices  and  at  hundreds  of  points. 

Petroleum,  whose  existence  has  long  been  known,  but  which 
has  not  been  largely  developed,  is  now  found  in  such  quantities 
in  Wyoming  and  California  as  to  have  already  become  a large 
item  in  the  traffic,  and  will  eventually  prove  a formidable  rival 
of  the  Eastern  oil  wells.  If,  before  the  close  of  the  century,  ele<> 


122 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


tricity  does  not  become  the  universal  illuminator,  the  oil  wells 
of  Wyoming  and  California  may  be  taxed  to  the  utmost  to 
supply  the  illuminating  and  heating  material  for  this  Western 
Empire. 

An  eminent  metallurgist  and  scientist  has  recently  estimated 
the  entire  mineral  production  of  the  region  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi for  the  year  1880  as  worth  ^1,000,000,000,  and  has  given 
the  items  on  which  his  estimate  is  based.  • 

Population. — The  last  Census  gives  the  figure  of  132,159, 
scarce  one  soul  to  each  square  mile  of  its  rugged  surface.  It  was 
but  40,000  in  1880,  and  only  20,000  ten  years  before.  The 
whole  vote  in  1890  for  Congress  was  31,090. 

PART  II. 

THE  SEVERAL  STATES  AND  TERRI- 
TORIES DESCRIBED. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ARIZONA. 

__  The  Territory  of  Arizona  occupies  a part  of  the  southwestern 
portion  of  “ Our  Western  Empire,”  though  separated  from  the 
Pacific  by  Southern  California  and  the  rocky  and  terrible  desert 
of  Lower  California,  above  the  head  of  the  gulf;  it  does  not 
extend  so  far  south  as  Southwestern  Texas,  but  is  comprised 
between  the  parallels  of  31°  20'  and  37°  of  north  latitude,  and 
between  the  meridians  of  109°  and  114°  35'  west  longitude  from 
Greenwich.  But  a small  portion  of  it  has  been  surveyed,  and 
as  its  western  boundary  along  the  Colorado  of  the  West  is 
irregular,  there  is  some  doubt  about  its  actual  area.  It  is  esti- 
mated, in  the  last  Land  Office  Report,  at  1 13,020  square  miles, 
or  72,906.240  acres.  The  probability  is  that  it  will  be  found  to 
exceed  this  amount  by  several  thousand  square  miles.  Its  form 
is  somewhat  irregular  ; on  the  north  it  is  bounded  by  the  Territory 
of  Utah,  the  thirty-seventh  parallel  forming  the  boundary  as  far 


BOUNDARIES  AND  ORGANIZATION. 


123 


west  as  the  114th  meridian,  which  forms  the  western  boundary 
of  Utah  ; this  meridian  forms  also  the  western  boundary  of 
Arizona  as  far  south  as  the  thirty-sixth  parallel,  where  the  Colo- 
rado of  the  West  crosses  the  angle  formed  by  the  meridian  and 
parallel,  and  proceeds  northwest  and  then  west-southwest,  and 
turning  sharply  south  at  Callville,  just  after  it  emerges  from  the 
Grand  Canon,  flows  southwardly  thence  to  the  Gulf  of  Califor- 
nia, forming,  for  all  this  distance  (about  5oo  miles),  the  western 
boundary  of  Arizona.  The  original  southern  boundary,  acquired 
from  Mexico  in  the  Treaty  of  Guadaloupe- Hidalgo  (February  2d, 
1848),  was  the  river  Gila,  the  most  considerable  of  the  lower 
affluents  of  the  Colorado,  and  the  only  one  which  is  navigable 
for  any  considerable  distance.  By  the  Gadsden  Treaty,  made  at 
Mexico,  December  30th,  1853,  all  the  territory  lying  south  of  the 
Gila  to  the  border  of  the  Mexican  State  of  Sonora,  was  con- 
veyed to  the  United  States.  The  southern  boundary  now  runs 
due  west  along  the  parallel  of  31°  20' to  the  ii  ith  meridian,  and 
thence  west-northwest  in  a straight  diagonal  line  till  it  reaches 
the  Colorado  in  about  32°  30'.  The  Territory  is  bounded  on 
the  east  by  New  Mexico. 

The  law  authorizing  the  organization  of  the  Territory  was 
passed  February  24th,  1863,  and  the  Territorial  Government 
inaugurated  December  29th,  1863.  It  has  never  been  thor- 
oughly explored,  and,  up  to  1880,  only  about  6,100,000  acres 
had  been  surveyed,  about  one-twelfth  of  its  area.  Its  area  is 
about  equal  to  that  of  all  the  New  England  States,  New  York 
and  New  Jersey.  The  country  is  mountainous  in  much  of  its 
extent,  though  there  is  but  little  regularity  about  its  mountain 
ranges.  In  the  middle  and  northeast  there  are  elevated  plateaux 
of  vast  extent  having  a mean  altitude,  varying  from  3,000  to 
7,5oo  feet  above  the  sea,  and  from  these  plateaux  volcanic 
cones  and  hills  rise  at  many  points.  In  the  north  a mesa  or  pla- 
teau stretches  away  far  into  Utah  Territory.  South  of  the  Gila 
river  the  plain  sinks  almost  to  the  sea-level,  but  in  the  south- 
east and  along  the  Sonora  line,  there  are  fourteen  or  fifteen  de- 
tached ranges,  and  four  or  five  isolated  peaks.  Many,  perhaps 
most,  of  the  mountain  ranges  have  a general  course  from  Tiorth- 


24 


OCR  WESTERLY  EMPIRE. 


west  to  southeast,  but  the  Mogollon  Mountains,  and  some  of 
the  other  groups  extending  into  New  Mexico,  have  an  east  and 
west  direction.  The  highest  known  elevation  in  the  Territory 
is  Mount  San  Francisco,  at  the  northern  end  of  the  lofty  San 
Francisco  plateau,  from  which  it  rises  to  a height  of  12,700 
feet  above  the  sea-level. 

Scattered  among  these  mountain  ranges,  detached  and  iso- 
lated mountain  summits,  plateaux  and  mesas,  are  many  valleys 
of  great  beauty  and  fertility,  but  the  river  valleys  are  generally 
narrow  ravines,  gorges  and  canons,  accessible  to  the  rays  of  the 
sun  only  at  high  noon,  and  whose  precipitous  and  nearly  perpen- 
dicular walls  excite  terror  rather  than  pleasure.  The  valleys 
of  the  Colorado  Chiquito,  or  Flax  river,  and  of  the  Rio  Salinas, 
or  Salt  river,  are  exceptions  to  this,  being  the  garden  spots  and 
granaries  of  the  Territory,  and  the  bordering  mountains  furnish- 
ing  great  stock-ranges  where  the  cattle  are  sometimes  too  fat 
to  be  driven. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  topography  of  Arizona  is 
the  tendency  of  its  rivers  and  streams  to  form  canons,  of  great 
depth  and  with  precipitous  sides.  Either  the  strata  through 
which  these  rivers  have  cut  their  way  to  the  G ilf  of  California 
are  more  friable  and  easily  eroded  than  the  same  strata  else- 
where, or  the  great  descent  of  the  rivers  and  their  immense 
volume  when  swollen  by  the  rains  and  melting  snows  give  them 
a force  which  is  irresistible.  The  whole  Territory  is  drained  by 
the  Colorado  river  and  its  tributaries.  Most  of  these  tributaries 
— all,  indeed,  except  the  Gila,  which  is  in  itself  a large  river — 
enter  the  Colorado  high  up  in  its  course  ; the  San  Juan,  which 
enters  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Territory  and  receives  a con- 
siderable affluent,  the  Rio  de  Chelly,  there  ; and  the  Colorado 
Chiquito,  or  Flax  river,  with  its  important  affluents,  the  Rio 
Puerco  of  the  West,  Rio  Quemado,  and  Chevelon’s  Fork, 
falling  into  the  parent  stream  above  the  Big  Canon  of  the  river  ; 
forming  deep,  dark  and  precipitous  canons  of  their  own.  The 
Colorado  itself,  through  more  than  600  miles  of  its  course  through 
Arizona,  flows  through  deep  canons,  and  receives  nearly  200 
streams,  large  and  small,  all  of  them  coming  through  gorges  of 


DESCENT  OF  THE  GRAND  CANON. 


125 

less  depth,  and  falling  over  the  as  yet  only  partially  eroded  rocks 
in  cataracts,  into  the  main  stream.  Its  descent  in  these  600 
miles  is  more  than  3,000  feet.  The  Big  or  Grand  Canon  is  one 
of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  Its  descent  has  been  several 
times  attempted,  and  was  accomplished,  though  not  without 
loss  of  life,  by  a party  under  command  of  Major  J.  W.  Powell 
in  1869,  and  again  in  1871. 

The  narrative  of  these  descents,  as  given  by  the  intrepid 
explorers,  is  of  the  most  thrilling  interest.  Through  its  whole 
course,  except  the  last  5oo  or  600  miles,  and  through  the  entire 
course  of  its  principal  affluents,  these  canons  succeed  one 
another,  each  one  in  the  downward  course  of  the  current  being 
deeper,  darker  and  more  terrible  than  its  predecessor.  At 
irregular  intervals  there  are  rapids,  cataracts,  and  falls  of  great 
height,  while  every  one  of  the  tributary  streams  plunges  into  the 
main  river  through  a minor  canon  of  its  own,*  by  a cataract  often 
of  i5o,  200,  or  300  feet.  The  ten  stalwart  men,  provided  with 
every  necessity  for  their  perilous  journey,  and  stocked  with 
ample  supplies,  who,  on  the  30th  of  May,  1869,  had  started  from 
the  Green  river  station,  in  four  boats,  to  descend  the  Colorado, 
had  passed  through  the  last  of  the  great  canons,- on  the  29th  of 
August,  their  numbers  reduced  to  six,  their  boats  to  two,  hatless, 
shoeless,  and  ragged,  their  provisions  exhausted,  their  instru- 
ments broken,  and  they  themselves  battered  and  bruised  by 
their  conflicts  with  rapids,  cataracts,  whirlpools  and  rugged 
rocks.  The  walls  of  their  long  prison  house  were  in  some 
places  more  than  a mile  in  height,  and  in  their  dark  gorges  they 
could  only  catch  a glimpse  of  the  sun  at  high  noon.  Yet  the 
monuments,  towers,  cathedrals,  castles  and  lofty  battlements  of 
all  conceivable  colors,  were  grand,  impressive  and  often  beauti-- 
ful  beyond  description  ; and  worn  and  wearied  as  they  were, 
they  were  full  of  enthusiasm  over  the  accomplishment  of  their 
perilous  voyage.  Three  of  those  who  had  left  them  were  slain 
by  Indians  ; one  returned  to  Utah. 

The  river  is  navigable,  though  with  some  difficulty,  on  account 
of  its  numerous  rapids,  from  Callville,  Nevada,  at  the  terminus 
of  the  Grand  Canon,  to  its  mouth,  a distance  of  612  miles. 


126 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


Neither  the  Colorado  Chiquito  nor  the  San  Juan  are  navigable, 
but  their  canons  and  the  rapid  descent  of  their  waters  are  only 
inferior  to  those  of  the  parent  stream.  The  lower  waters  of  the 
Colorado  are  not  much  higher  than  the  Gulf  of  California,  and, 
indeed,  flow  at  one  point  through  a broad  and  almost  stagnant 
lake.  The  Gila  rises  in  the  mountains  of  New  Mexico,  and  for 
about  one-half  of  its  course  traverses  a mountainous  region, 
though  it  does  not  at  any  point  cut  for  itself  deep  or  precipitous 
gorges.  From  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  San  Pedro  its  course  is 
through  a less  elevated  region,  and  a part  of  the  distance  is 
navigable  and  without  rapids. 

These  deep  canons  of  the  principal  rivers  drain  much  of  the 
surrounding  country  of  its  moisture,  and  render  large  tracts  unfit 
for  anything  but  grazing,  and  still  larger  ones  unfit  for  that,  un- 
less by  aqueducts,  reservoirs,  or  artesian  wells  the  necessary 
water  can  be  supplied  for  stock.  In  the  existing  condition  of 
the  country,  much  of  the  rainfall  which,  in  some  seasons,  is 
abundant,  or  sufficiently  so  for  the  country,  if  it  could  be  saved, 
is  wasted,  running  off  from  these  hard-baked  table-lands  into  the 
canons  and  not  penetrating  the  soil.  Yet  this  soil  under  irriga- 
tion is  wonderfully  productive.  The  lands  which  can  be  irrigated 
yield  sixty-five  bushels  of  the  finest  wheat  in  the  world  to  the 
acre,  and  proportionate  quantities  of  other  cereals  ; while  Indian 
corn  and  the  root  crops  are  produced  in  almost  incredible  quan- 
tities. Fortunately  for  the  Territory,  very  much  of  this  land 
which  once  produced  large  crops  can  be  reclaimed  ; many  of  the 
gorges  and  ravines  can,  at  small  expense,  be  made  reservoirs, 
and  thus  treasure  up  the  water  which  comes  down  from  the 
melting  snows  of  the  mountains,  or  that  which  now  runs  off  into 
the  canons  after  heavy  rains,  and  this  can  be  used  with  great 
advantage  for  irrigation,  for  the  watering  of  live-stock,  and  for 
mining  purposes  ; while  deep  plowing  and  the  breaking  up  of 
the  hard  and  dry  sod  will  render  the  soil  far  more  pervious  and 
absorbent  of  the  rains,  and  so  capable  of  more  easy  cultivation. 
But  on  these  viesas  and  high  table-lands,  where  there  are  no 
streams  available  for  purposes  of  irrigation,  artesian  wells  have 
never  failed  to  bring  water,  and  usually  with  sufficient  head  and 


CLIMATE  OF  ARIZONA.  12/ 

in  sufficient  quantity  to  flow  of  itself  without  pumping  and  to 
supply  pools  or  reservoirs  of  great  extent. 

In  contradistinction  to  the  Eastern  States,  where  the  streams 
maintain  themselves  in  gathering  strength  from  mountain 
to  sea,  dryness  is  one  of  the  striking  features  of  this  whole 
elevated  region.  Streams  and  springs  are  few  and  far  apart. 
The  larger  streams  gather  no  affluents,  but  waste  themselves 
in  absorption  and  evaporation,  and  the  smaller  ones  usually  sink 
and  disappear  under  the  first  valley  which  they  enter,  where  the 
soil  is  generally  light  and  loose  enough  to  absorb  them.  But 
the  water  can  there  always  be  found  ; in  the  lower  country,  at 
variable  depths  of  5o  to  2 5o  feet,  and  usually  only  a few  feet 
below  the  surface  in  many  of  the  upland  valleys.  This  may  give 
the  necessary  provision  of  water  for  the  larms  in  the  valleys, 
while  the  mountains  furnish  it  sufficiently  for  stock.  There  are 
two  seasons  of  falling  weather  : the  heavy  summer  rains,  when 
the  washes  and  stream- beds  become  temporary  torrents,  and 
the  winter  season  of  rains  and  snow.  Now,  at  the  end  of 
October,  the  falling  weather  of  the  winter  has  not  yet  com- 
menced, except  in  the  high  mountains.  The  days  are  warm, 
the  sky  is  uninterruptedly  cloudless,  but  ice  makes  at  night,  and 
alight  snow  has  just  fallen  in  the  San  Francisco  Mountain.  The 
grass  there  is  beginning  to  dry  up,  and  the  northern  face  of  the 
mountain  is  probably  covered  with  snow. 

The  climate  of  Arizona  may,  perhaps,  be  inferred  from  what 
has  already  been  said.  It  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  Terri- 
tory. The  lowlands,  from  Fort  Yuma  eastward,  along  the 
valley  of  the  Gila  and  farther  south  between  the  thirty-second 
and  thirty-third  parallels,  are  extremely  hot  in  summer.  May, 
June,  July,  August,  and  September  are  the  hottest  months, 
and  a record  of  112^  Fahrenheit  in  the  shade  is  not  very  in- 
frequent during  those  months.  During  the  other  months  of  the 
year  the  heat  is  not  excessive,  and  the  dry  air  makes  it  healthy. 
The  rainfall  is  principally  in  July  and  August  in  this  part  of  the 
Territory,  though  there  is  occasionally  a season  of  rain  in 
December  and  January. 


128 


OUK  IVBSTEAW  EMPIRE. 


The  mineral  wealth  of  Arizona  is  undoubtedly  very  great. 
Its  veins  and  placers  of  gold,  silver,  copper  and  lead,  and  its 
carbonates  and  oxides  of  iron,  platinum  and  quicksilver  are  dis- 
tributed very  widely  over  the  Territory.  Gold  is  found  free 
both  in  placers  and  in  quartz  lodes  ; silver  in  galena,  and  com- 
bined with  both  lead  and  copper  as  sulphides  and  carbonates  ; 
copper  is  also  found  alone  in  the  form  of  gray  sulphurets  ; 
quicksilver  in  the  form  of  cinnabar  and  perhaps  other  com- 
binations; tin,  platinum  and  nickel  nearly  pure;  iron  ores  of 
all  kinds,  and  well  situated  for  producing  the  finer  qualities  of 
iron  and  steel  ; besides  the  anthracite  coal  in  the  northeast  there 
is  bituminous  coal  adapted  to  smelting  purposes  at  Camp  Apache 
and  elsewhere.  Immense  deposits  of  salt  of  the  purest  quality 
have  been  discovered,  and  there  are  large  beds  of  sulphur,  gyp- 
sum, hydraulic  lime,  valuable  mineral  springs,  natural  loadstones 
of  great  magnetic  power,  and  fossil  woods  of  many  varieties. 
There  are  also  opal  pebbles,  garnets,  red,  white  and  yellow  ; 
azurite,  malachite,  chalcedony,  sapphires,  opals,  and  possibly 
some  diamonds. 

Of  the  regions  north  of  the  Colorado  and  the  Colorado 
Chiquito,  there  is  hardly  enough  known  to  justify  any  consider- 
able description  of  their  vegetation.  Near  the  Colorado  the 
land  is  so  thoroughly  drained  of  moisture  as  to  be  almost  a 
desert.  East  of  the  Colorado  Chiquito  is  abroad  plateau,  a por- 
tion of  which  is  volcanic  in  character,  and  is  laid  down  upon  the 
maps  as  a “ painted  desert,”  probably  from  the  color  of  its  lime- 
stones, shales,  and  sandstones.  North  of  this  are  the  villages 
of  the  Moquis,  where,  in  the  past,  the  water  has  been  treasured 
up  in  reservoirs  for  domestic  purposes  and  for  irrigation.  On 
portions  of  these  mesas  they  were  accustomed  to  cultivate  their 
fields  of  blue,  red,  yellow,  orange-colored  and  white  corn,  keep- 
ing each  carefully  in  fields  by  itself,  and  garnering  them  in  sep- 
arate granaries. 

All  the  wild  animals  of  the  western  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
should  find  homes  in  the  forests  and  plains  of  Arizona.  Perhaps 
occasional  specimens  of  nearly  all  of  them  may  be  found 
but,  as  a matter  of  fact,  wild  animals  are  not  very  numerous 
in  Arizona.  Of  the  larger  game  the  elk  is  rare,  but  there 
are  two  species  of  deer,  the  Rocky  Mountain  antelope,  the 
bighorn  or  mountain  sheep,  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  goat 


WILD  ANIMALS  OF  AFIZONA. 


I 29 

or  goat  antelope.  Most  of  them  were  more  abundant  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  Territory  than  in  the  southern.  Of 
the  smaller  game,  there  are  the  sage  hare,  the  jack  rabbit, 
and  several  species  ol  squirrels.  Of  the  larger  beasts  of 
prey,  the  grizzly  bear  is  very  rare,  if  he  inhabits  the  Territory  at 
all ; the  black  and  cinnamon  bears  are  more  numerous.  The 
puma  or  cougar  is  found  in  the  forests,  though  less  numerous 
than  in  better-watered  countries  ; the  jaguar  is  found  in  the  low 
lands,  though  less  abundant  than  in  Texas.  The  ocelot,  the  wild 
cat  and  the  lynx  are  occasionally  found  in  the  forests,  as  well  as 
the  red  or  gray  wolf,  and  one  or  two  species  of  fox.  The  prairie 
wolf,  usually  called  the  coyote,"^  is  not  found  in  the  Territory, 
though  the  true  coyote,  a miserable  little  cur  of  an  animal  scarcely 
larger  than  a fox,  is  occasionally  seen  ; but  there  are  peccaries, 
raccoons,  opossums,  skunks,  and  the  gopher  or  prairie  dog  or 
marmot.  There  are  said  to  be  larofe  herds  of  mustangs  or  wild 

o 

horses  in  the  plains  of  Southern  Arizona.  Of  birds  there  are  a 
considerable  number,  many  of  them  of  gay-colored  plumage. 
The  Wheeler  expedition  sent  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  5oo 
specimens,  and  183  distinct  species,  and  others  have  since  been 
discovered.  Game-birds  are  abundant,  pheasants,  partridges, 
quails  and  grouse,  especially  the  sage-hen  and  the  prairie-hen. 
The  crane,  ibis  and  flamingo  are  among  the  birds  of  Southern 
Arizona.  Eagles,  vultures,  buzzards,  hawks  and  owls  are 
numerous  ; the  king  vulture,  little  inferior  in  size  to  the  condor 
or  lammergeier,  a rare  bird  in  North  America,  is  only  found  in 
the  United  States,  in  this  Territory  and  in  Texas.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  fish  found  in  the  rivers,  some  of  them  edible 
fish  of  great  delicacy  and  peculiar  to  this  Territory.  Several 
species  of  fish  have  been  discovered  in  the  mineral  springs. 
There  are  also  many  species  of  mollusks.  The  reptiles  and 
serpents  of  Arizona  are  formidable,  and  in  some  parts  of  the 
Territory  numerous.  There  are  alligators  in  the  Gila  and  Lower 
Colorado,  horned  toads,  lizards,  scorpions,  and  centipedes  in  the 
chaparral  and  among  the  cacti,  rattlesnakes  on  the  mesas  or 
table-lands  of  Central  and  Northern  Arizona. 

The  skunk,  in  other  sections  a harmless  animal,  except  for  his 
fearfully  offensive  odor,  is,  in  all  the  region  below  the  fortieth  par- 

* Colonel  Richard  Irving  Dodge,  United  States  Army,  a very  high  authority  in  all  hunting 
matters,  insists  (“  The  Plains  of  the  Great  West  ”)  that  the  coyote  is  an  insignihcant  little  animal 
hardly  lare:er  than  a fox,  and  is  found  only  in  Texas,  Arizona  and  Mexico  ; and  that  the  praiiie 
wolf,  so  often  called  a coyote,  and  so  abundant  on  the  “plains,”  is  really  an  entirely  different 
and  much  larger  species  of  the  canine  family. 


130  ADVENl'URES  IVITH  WILD  ANIMALS. 

allel,  very  much  dreaded  for  his  carnivorous  propensity.  Finding 
his  way  into  a camp,  or  where  settlers  are  sleeping  on  the  ground 
under  tents,  he  proceeds  without  any  hesitation  to  bite  and  gnaw 
the  face  or  hands  or  feet  of  the  sleepers,  and  his  appetite  for 
human  flesh  and  blood  once  aroused  he  will  return  to  his  repast 
even  if  driven  away.  These  bites  in  very  many  cases  produce 
hydrophobia,  though  the  animal  itself  shows  no  signs  of  rabies. 
These  animals  are  very  numerous  in  Arizona,  New  Mexico, 
Colorado,  Kansas,  the  Indian  Territory  and  Texas,  and  though 
many  thousands  of  them  are  killed  every  year  for  their  skins, 
the  fur  being  in  great  demand  in  the  fashionable  world,  they  do 
not  seem  to  diminish  in  numbers.  Colonel  R.  I.  Dodge  relates 
a case  of  these  skunk  bites,  which,  happily,  did  not  prove  fatal. 
It  occurred  in  the  Guadaloupe  Mountains  in  Texas,  not  far  from 
the  southeast  border  of  Arizona.  A soldier  and  his  comrade 
were  sleeping  in  a common  or  A tent.  The  soldier  dreamed 
that  he  was  being  eaten  up  by  some  animal,  but  a sort  of  night- 
mare prevented  his  moving.  After  some  time,  however,  the 
pain  and  horror  together  woke  him  up  to  find  a skunk  eating  his 
hand.  With  a cry  and  sudden  effort  he  threw  the  animal  from 
him.  It  struck  the  other  side  of  the  tent  and  fell  upon  the  other 
man,  who,  recognizing  the  intruder,  rushed  out  of  the  tent.  The 
bitten  man,  who  had  heard  of  the  surely  fatal  result  of  skunk- 
bite,  was  so  paralyzed  with  fear  and  horror  that  he  made  no 
effort  to  get  up,  and  seeing  the  skunk  coming  towards  him  again 
buried  himself  in  the  blankets.  The  skunk  walked  all  over 
f him,  apparently  seeking  for  an  opening,  and  finding  none  began 
to  scratch  the  blankets  as  if  trying  to  dig  out  his  victim.  The 
mental  condition  of  this  poor  fellow  can  better  be  imagined  than 
described.  In  the  meantime  the  other  man  had  loosened  the 
tent  pins  and  lifted  tip  one  side  of  the  tent,  letting  in  the  moon- 
light; then  pelting  the  animal  with  sticks,  from  a distance,  at  last 
frightened  it  so  that  it  ran  off  into  the  deep,  dark  bank  of  the 
river.  This  skunk  emitted  no  odor,  and  was  undoubtedly  simply 
hungry  and  not  rabid.  The  man  came  to  Colonel  Dodge  in  the 
morning  with  his  hand  bound  up,  and  asked  if  there  was  any 
cure  for  a skunk-bite.  The  colonel’s  heart  sunk  within  him,  but 
33  • 


OUR  VVESl'ERN  EMPIRE.  j ^ 

he  made  light  of  the  matter  and  examined  the  wound.  The 
whole  ball  of  the  right  thumb  was  torn,  lacerated  and  gnawed  in 
a fearful  manner.  He  had  no  caustics  or  other  means  of  cauteri- 
zation, and  so  long  a time  had  elapsed  that  he  thought  they  would 
have  done  more  harm  mentally  than  good  physically.  So  he  had 
the  wound  carefully  and  thoroughly  washed  with  Castile  soap,  cut 
off  the  protuberant  pieces  of  mangled  flesh,  and,  binding  it  up, 
kept  on  a simple  water-dressing  till  the  wound  healed,  which 
was  in  about  ten  days.  The  man  was  with  Colonel  Dodge  for 
more  than  a year  after  this,  but  never  experienced  any  ill  effects 
except  temporary  pain  from  the  wound.  Colonel  Dodge  says 
that  this  was  the  only  non-fatal  case  of  which  he  knew  in  that 
region,  though  in  other  sections  they  were  not  often  fatal. 

The  gray  wolves  not  unfrequently  suffer  from  rabies  or  go 
mad,  and  in  that  condition  lose  all  fear,  and  will  rush  into  houses, 
tents,  etc.,  biting  every  one  whom  they  can  reach. 

Productions  of  Arizona. — In  1879  there  was  about  ^3,500,000  of 
gold,  silver  and  copper  sent  to  San  Francisco  from  Arizona.  In 
1880,  the  amount  will,  in  all  probability,  be  over  ^8,000,000,  and 
as  soon  as  railroads,  now  constructing,  are  completed  through  the 
Territory,  the  mineral  exports  will  be  much  increased,  and  lead, 
anthracite  coal,  platinum,  quicksilver  and  other  metals  will  be 
added  to  them. 

Wheat  is  the  principal  vegetable  production  exported.  It  is 
of  excellent  quality,  fully  equal  to  the  best  California,  and  where 
irrigation  can  be  practised,  the  yield  is  enormous.  We  have  no 
statistics  of  the  vegetable  crops  gathered  the  last  year,  and  be- 
lieve none  have  been  collected.  Fruit,  of  semi-tropical  qualities, 
is  beginning  to  be  extensively  cultivated.  Lumber  and  timber 
can  be  produced  in  some  quarters,  sufficient  not  only  to  supply 
the  home  demand,  but  to  have  considerable  quantities  to  export. 
The  Papago  Indians,  in  the  southwest,  the  Pimas  and  Maricopas, 
in  the  south  and  central  region,  the  Mohaves,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent, the  Yumas,  in  the  west  and  on  the  Lower  Colorado,  and  the 
more  civilized  bands  of  the  Apaches  in  the  east,  cultivate  the  soil 
and  obtain  a livelihood  from  it,  the  Maricopas  and  Papagos  ex- 
porting considerable  grain  to  San  Francisco.  In  the  northeast 


132 


INDTAXS  OF  ARIZONA. 


the  Navajos  are  largely  engaged  in  sheep-farming,  as  already 
noticed.  The  Hualapais  and  the  Yavapais,  as  well  as  some  of 
the  Apaches,  are  more  inclined  to  a nomadic  life,  but  will  make 
good  herdmen.  The  Apaches  in  the  southeast,  and  the  Pah- 
Utes  or  Pi-Utes,  in  the  north  and  northwest,  are  not  inclined  to 
any  industry,  and  are  roving,  troublesome  and  thievish. 

The  white  population  of  Arizona  is,  according  to  the  census 
just  taken,  almost  42,000  and  rapidly  increasing.  In  i860  there 
were  6,482,  and  in  1870  there  were  9,658.  There  has  been 
within  the  past  two  years,  a rapid  influx  of  persons  interested 
in  mines  and  mining,  as  well  as  some  who  preferred  agricul- 
tural pursuits,  or  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  sheep.  In  1870  there 
were  32,052  Indians  in  the  Territory;  the  number  has  prob- 
ably somewhat  diminished  since  that  time,  as  the  small-pox  and 
other  fatal  diseases  have  raged  among  them,  and  some  of  the 
tribes  have  scarcely  escaped  starvation,  but  they  must  numbei* 
nearly  29,000  at  the  present  time. 

Besides  the  tribes  we  have  named,  there  are  other  smaller 
bands,  such  as  the  Suechis,  Apache  Mohaves,  Apache  Coyoteros, 
Cosninas,  Chemehuevis  and  Wallapis.  The  Apaches,  who  num- 
ber about  5,000,  and  have  a large  reservation  in  the  southeast, 
are  divided  into  six  bands  : the  Tontos,  Pinals,  Arivapas,  Mes- 
caleros,  Bonitos  and  Cochise’s  band.  They  are,  for  the  most 
part,  treacherous  and  mischievous,  and  have  of  late  been  raiding 
in  New  Mexico,  but  have  met  with  summary  punishment.  With 
the  exception  of  these  and  the  Pi-Utes  in  the  north,  the  Indians 
of  Arizona  are  friendly  to  the  whites,  peaceable,  and,  for  Indians, 
industrious. 

There  are,  all  over  Arizona,  ruins  of  ancient  dwellings,  castles  . 
and  fortified  villages,  together  with  acequias  or  water-conduits, 
caves  and  dwellings  hewn  out  of  the  rocks,  or  built  up  with  large 
stones  and  evidently  formerly  containing  a large  population.  Of 
these  ruins,  Hon.  A.  P.  K.  Safford,  formerly  Governor  of  the 
Territory,  and  its  Commissioner  at  the  Centennial  Exposition, 
says: 

“ Many  portions  of  the  Territory  are  covered  with  ruins,  which 
prove  conclusively  that  it  was  once  densely  populated  by  a peo- 


OUJ^  WES  7 E AW  EMJ'IRE. 


^33 


pie  far  in  advance.  In  point  of  civilization,  of  most  of  the  Indian 
tribes.  There  is  no  written  record  of  them,  and  it  Is  only  a 
matter  of  conjecture  who  and  what  they  were.  Occasionally  a 
deserted  house  is  found  sufficiently  well  preserved  to  ascertain 
the  character  of  the  architecture.  The  walls  of  the  Casa  Grande, 
situated  on  the  Gila,  near  Sanford,  are  still  two  stories  above  the 
ground.  In  size,  the  structure  is  about  thirty  by  sixty  feet;  the 
walls  are  thick,  and  made  of  mud,  which  was  evidently  confined 
and  dried  as  it  was  built.  It  Is  divided  into  many  small  rooms, 
and  the  partitions  are  also  made  of  mud.  The  floors  were  made 
by  placing  sticks  close  together  and  covering  them  with  cement. 
Around  and  near  the  Casa  Grande  are  the  ruins  of  many  other 
buildings  ; but,  by  the  lapse  of  time,  the  decay  of  vegetation  has 
formed  earth  and  nearly  covered  them,  and  all  that  now  marks 
the  place  where  once  a stately  mansion  stood  is  the  elevation  of 
the  ground.  Near  the  Ancha  Mountains  are  ruins  not  so  ex« 
tensive,  but  in  far  better  preservation  than  the  Casa  Grande , 
and  near  these  ruins  are  old  arastras,  for  the  reduction  of  silver 
ores — which  indicate  that  this  old  people  were  not  unmindful  ol' 
the  root  of  all  evil.  On  the  Verde  river  are  immense  rooms  dug 
in  from  the  sides  of  high,  perpendicular  sandstone  banks,  that  can 
only  be  reached  with  ladders. 

“ Very  little  information  Is  obtained  by  excavating  these  ruins. 
Pottery  of  an  excellent  quality,  and  ornamented  with  paint,  is 
found  everywhere,  and  occasionally  a stone  axe  Is  unearthed,  but 
nothing  to  indicate  that  they  were  a warlike  people ; on  the  con- 
trary, scarcely  an  implement  of  defence  can  be  found,  though 
there  are  reasons  to  believe,  from  the  numerous  lookouts  or 
places  for  observation  to  be  seen  on  the  tops  of  hills  and  moun- 
tains, and  the  construction  of  their  houses,  that  they  had  enemies, 
and  that  they  were  constantly  on  the  alert  to  avoid  surprise ; 
and  also,  that  by  the  hands  of  these  enemies  they  perished.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  the  Apaches  were  the  enemies  who  caused 
their  destruction.  Indeed,  the  Apaches  have  a legend  that  such 
is  the  case.  During  the  past  year  I opened  an  old  ruin  at  Puebla 
Viejo,  on  the  Upper  Gila,  and  found  the  bones  of  several  human 
beings  within  ; also  the  bones  of  a number  of  domestic  animals. 


134 


ANCIhN'r  RUINS  IN  ARIZONA. 


On  the  fire,  an  olla  (crockery-ware  vessel)  was  found  with  the 
bones  of  a fowl  in  it,  and  it  appeared  as  though  the  people  within 
had  resisted  an  attack  from  an  enemy,  and  had  finally  been  mur- 
dered. Shortly  after,  I visited  a ruin  in  Chino  valley,  twenty 
miles  north  of  Prescott,  and  over  three  hundred  miles  from  Puebla 
Viejo,  and  there  found  that  Mr.  Banghart  had  opened  a ruin  on 
his  farm.  In  it  he  found  the  bones  of  several  human  beings — 
five  adults  and  some  children — and  the  evidences  were  unmis- 
takable that  the  inmates  had  died  by  violence,  as  the  door  and 
window  had  been  walled  up  with  stone,  evidently  to  resist  a hos- 
tile foe.  The  subject  is  an  interesting  one,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  further  excavations  may  throw  more  light  upon  the  subject. 
The  ruins  of  towns,  farms  and  irrigating  canals,  that  are  to  be 
seen  on  every  hand  through  this  vast  Territory,  give  abundant 
proof  that  this  country  was  once  densely  inhabited,  and  that  the 
people  who  lived  here  maintained  themselves  by  cultivating  the 
soil.  Probably  that  is  about  all  we  shall  ever  know  of  them. 
Many  hieroglyphics  are  to  be  seen  on  rocks  in  different  portions 
of  the  Territory,  but  by  whom  made,  or  what  they  mean,  no  one 
knows. 

‘Tn  excavating  a well  between  Tucson  and  the  Gila,  at  the 
depth  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  pottery  and  other  articles, 
the  same  as  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  ruins,  were  taken  out.” 

But  by  far  the  most  interesting  of  these  ruins,  inasmuch  as 
they  are  not  wholly  ruins,  but  some  of  them  inhabited  by  the 
remnant  of  the  original  tribes  which  built  them,  are  those  of  the 
ancient  province  of  Tusayan,  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
Territory.  Seven  of  the  sixty  or  more  towns  which  constitute 
this  once  populous  province,  are  still  inhabited  by  the  Moquis, 
who  are  undoubtedly  the  descendants  of  the  original  nation 
which  once  occupied  the  whole  of  this  Territory,  and  who  still 
adhere  to  the  religion  of  their  fathers.  Of  the  sixty  towns,  thirty 
are  still  inhabited,  but  all  except  the  seven  are  under  the  con^ 
trol  of  Catholic  priests,  and  the  Pagan  rites  and  ceremonies  are 
prohibited  ; but  occasionally  the  inhabitants  steal  away  from  their 
villages  and  join  with  the  Pagans  of  the  “ Province  of  Tusayan  ” 
in  their  rites  and  worship.  There  are  other  groups  of  these  vil- 


OUR  IVESTERN  EMPIRE. 


13^ 

lages  on  the  San  Juan  river  in  New  Mexico  and  Southwestern 
Colorado,  which  have  been  visited  by  Professor  J.  S.  Newberry 
and  his  companions,  in  i860,  whose  language,  religion,  etc.,  are 
identical  with  these.  Colonel  J.  W.  Powell,  United  States  army, 
visited  the  province  of  Tusayan  in  1871,  and  spent  about  two 
months  in  studying  the  language,  manners,  customs,  and  religion 
of  these  interesting  people.  The  narratives  of  Professor  New- 
berry (which  has  not  been  published)  and  of  Colonel  Powell  are 
both  full  of  interest,  and  from  them  we  glean  a few  particulars 
in  addition  to  those  already  given  in  Part  I.,  chapter  vi.,  page  29, 
which  will,  we  think,  be  of  interest  to  our  readers. 

The  villages  of  these  Moquis  are  always  situated  on  some  lofty 
mesa  or  isolated  table-land,  difficult  of  access;  their  dwellings  are 
of  stone,  usually  three  or  four  stories  high,  and  around  an  inte- 
rior court,  common  to  the  village.  The  outer  walls  are  blank 
and  inaccessible,  and  the  inner  court  is  only  approached  by  a 
covered  way  easily  defended.  Entering  the  village  plaza  or  in- 
terior court-yard,  the  houses  are  joined  together,  forming  a con- 
tinuous wall  outside,  and  within  the  court  they  are  built  in 
terraces,  the  second  story  being  set  back  upon  the  first,  the  third 
upon  the  second,  and  the  fourth  upon  the  third.  There  are  no 
doors  or  low  windows  to  the  first  story ; access  to  it  is  had  only 
by  ascending  a ladder  to  the  top  of  the  story  and  then  descend- 
ing another  to  the  floor  of  the  first.  This  lower  story  is  for  the 
most  part  a store-house  where  the  corn  or  other  grain  used  by 
the  family  is  stored,  each  color  of  the  corn  by  itself  The  second 
story,  or  sometimes  the  third,  contains  the  family  room,  which  is 
twenty  or  twenty-four  feet  by  twelve  or  fifteen  in  width,  and 
about  eight  feet  high.  Usually  all  the  rooms  are  plastered  care- 
fully, and  sometimes  they  are  painted  with  rude  devices.  For 
doors  and  windows  there  are  openings  only,  except  that  some- 
times small  windows  are  glazed  with  thin  sheets  of  selenite,  the 
transparent  flat  crystals  of  gypsum.  To  go  up  to  the  third  or 
fourth  story  you  climb  by  a stairway  made  in  the  projecting  wall 
of  the  partition.  In  a corner  of  each  principal  room  a little  fire- 
place is  seen,  large  enough  to  hold  about  an  armful  of  wood  ; a 
stone  chimney  is  built  in  the  corner,  and  often  capped  outside 


136  the  DIVELL/XGS  OE  THE  MOQUIS. 

with  a pottery  pipe.  I'he  exterior  of  the  houses  is  very  irregu- 
lar and  unsightly,  and  the  streets  and  courts  are  filthy,  though 
in  the  centre  of  each  court  is  a large,  deep  fountain  and  pool, 
which  is  used  for  bathing ; but  within  the  houses  great  cleanli- 
ness is  observed.  Separated  from  the  houses,  indeed  belonging 
to  the  village,  is  the  kiva,  called  Estufa,  “ the  Sweat  House,”  by 
the  Spaniards.  It  is  a large  underground  room  in  the  court- 
yard or  plaza,  chiefly  intended  for  religious  ceremonies,  the 
church,  in  fact,  of  the  village,  but  also  used  as  a place  of  social 
resort.  A deep  pit  is  excavated  in  the  shaly  rock  and  covered 
with  long  logs,  over  which  are  placed  long  reeds,  these,  in  turn, 
covered  with  earth,  heaped  in  a mound  above ; a hole  or  hatch- 
way is  left,  and  the  entrance  to  the  kiva  is  by  a ladder  down  this 
hatchway. 

The  people  are  very  hospitable  and  quite  ceremonious ; they 
are  also  remarkably  polite.  Enter  a house  and  you  are  invited 
to  take  a seat  on  a mat  placed  for  you  upon  the  floor,  and  some 
refreshment  is  offered,  perhaps  a melon  with  a little  bread,  per- 
haps peaches  or  apricots.  After  you  have  eaten,  everything  is 
carefully  cleared  away,  and  with  a little  broom  made  of  feathers 
of  birds,*  the  matron  or  her  daughter  removes  any  crumbs  or 
seeds  which  may  have  been  dropped.  They  are  a very  economi- 
cal people  ; the  desolate  circumstances  under  which  they  live, 
the  distance  to  the  forests,  and  the  scarcity  of  game,  together 
with  their  fear  of  the  neighboring  Navajos  and  Apaches,  which 
prevents  them  from  making  excursions  to  a distance,  all  com- 
bine to  teach  them  the  most  rigid  economy.  Their  wood  is 
packed  from  a distant  forest  on  the  backs  of  mules  or  asses,  and 
when  a fire  is  kindled  but  a few  small  fragments  are  used,  and 
when  no  longer  needed  the  brands  are  extinguished,  and  the  re- 
maining pieces  preserved  for  future  use.  Their  corn  is  raised  in 
fields  near  by,  out  in  the  drifting  sands,  by  digging  pits  eighteen 
inches  to  two  feet  deep,  in  which  the  seeds  are  planted  early  in 
the  spring,  while  the  ground  is  yet  moist.  When  it  has  ripened 
it  is  gathered,  brought  in  from  the  fields  in  baskets  carried  by 


* Some  of  these  brushes  or  brooms  are  very  beautiful,  and  are  made  of  the  feathers  of  hum^ 
ming-birds  and  other  birds  of  gay  plumage  found  in  that  region. 


O UR  IVES  TE R N EMPIRE. 


137 

the  women,  and  stored  away  in  their  rooms,  being  carefully 
corded.  They  take  great  pains  to  raise  corn  of  different  colors, 
and  have  the  corn  of  each  color  stored  in  a separate  room.  This 
is  ground  to  a fine  flour  in  stone-mills,  then  made  into  a paste 
like  a rather  thick  gruel.  In  every  house  there  is  a little  oven 
made  of  a flat  stone  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  square,  raised 
four  or  five  inches  from  the  floor,  and  beneath  this  a little  fire  is 
built.  When  the  oven  is  hot  and  the  dough  mixed  in  a little 
vessel  of  pottery,  the  good  woman  plunges  her  hand  in  the  mix- 
ture and  rapidly  smears  the  broad  surface  of  the  furnace  rock 
with  a thin  coating  of  the  paste.  In  a few  moments  the  film  of 
batter  is  baked ; when  taken  up  it  looks  like  a sheet  of  paper. 
This  she  folds  and  places  on  a tray.  Having  made  seven  sheets 
of  this  paper  bread  from  the  batter  of  one  color  and  placed  them 
on  the  tray,  she  takes  batter  of  another  color,  and,  in  this  way, 
makes  seven  sheets  of  each  of  the  several  colors  of  corn-batter. 

They  have  many  curious  ways  of  preparing  their  food,  but 
jDerhaps  the  daintiest  dish  is  “ virgin  hash.”  This  Is  made  by 
• Tewing  morsels  of  meat  and  bread,  rolling  them  In  the  mouth 
into  little  lumps  about  the  size  of  a horse-chestnut,  and  then 
tying  them  up  in  bits  of  corn-husk.  When  a number  of  these 
are  made,  they  are  thrown  Into  a pot  and  boiled  like  dumplings. 
The  most  curious  thing  of  all  is,  that  only  certain  persons  are 
allowed  to  prepare  these  dumplings ; the  tongue  and  palate 
kneading  must  be  done  by  a virgin.  An  old  feud  Is  sometimes 
avenged  by  pretending  hospitality,  and  giving  to  the  enemy 
dumplings  made  by  a lewd  woman. 

In  this  warm  and  dry  climate  the  people  live  principally  out 
of  doors  or  on  the  tops  of  their  houses,  and  it  is  a merry  sight 
to  see  a score  or  two  of  little  naked  children  climbing  up  and 
down  the  stairways  and  ladders,  and  running  about  the  tops  of 
the  houses  engaged  In  some  active  sport. 

In  every  house  vessels  of  stone  and  pottery  are  found  in  great 
abundance.  These  Indian  women  have  great  skill  in  ceramic 
art,  decorating  their  vessels  with  picture-writings  in  various 
colors,  but  chiefly  black. 

In  the  early  history  of  this  country,  before  the  advent  of  the 


138  DKESS  AND  //AB/7S  OF  7 HE  MOQU/S. 

Spaniards,  these  people  raised  cotton,  and  from  it  made  their 
clothing:  but  between  the  years  1540  and  1600  they  were  sup- 
plied with  sheep,  and  now  the  greater  part  of  their  clothing  is 
made  of  wool,  though  all  their  priestly  habiliments,  their  wedding 
and  burying  garments,  are  still  made  of  cotton.  The  weaving 
is  mostly  done  by  the  men,  and  their  woollen  blankets  are  re- 
markable for  their  density  and  their  fine  texture.  They  are 
perfectly  water-proof,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  page  67. 

Men,  wear  moccasins,  leggings,  shirts  and  blankets;  the 
women,  moccasins  with  long  tops,  short  petticoats  dyed  black, 
sometimes  with  a red  border  below,  and  a small  blanket  or 
shawl  thrown  over  the  body  so  as  to  pass  over  the  right  shoul- 
der under  the  left  arm.  A long  girdle  of  many  bright  colors  is 
wound  around  the  waist.  The  outer  garment  is  also  black. 
The  women  have  beautiful,  black,  glossy  hair,  which  is  allowed 
to  grow  very  long,  and  which  they  take  great  pains  in  dressing. 
Early  in  the  morning,  immediately  after  breakfast,  if  the  weather 
is  pleasant,  the  women  all  repair  to  the  tops  of  the  houses,  tak- 
ing with  them  little  vases  of  water,  and  wash,  comb  and  braid 
one  another’s  hair.  It  is  washed  in  a decoction  of  the  soap 
plant,  a species  of  yucca,  and  then  allowed  to  dry  in  the  open 
air.  The  married  ladies  have  their  hair  braided  and  rolled  in  a 
knot  at  the  back  of  the  head,  but  the  maidens  have  it  parted 
along  the  middle  line  above,  and  each  lock  carefully  braided  or 
twisted,  and  rolled  into  a coil  supported  by  little  wooden  pins, 
so  as  to  cover  each  ear,  giving  them  a very  fantastic  appearance. 

The  politeness  of  the  people  is  shown  in  their  salutations. 
If  you  meet  them  in  the  fields  they  greet  you  with  a salutation 
signifying,  “May  the  birds  sing  happy  songs  in  your  fields.”  If 
you  do  one  of  them  a favor,  even  though  a very  slight  one,  he 
thanks  you  ; if  a man,  he  says  “ kwa  kwa;”  if  a woman,  “es-ka-li.” 
It  is  an  interesting  feature  in  their  language  that  many  words 
are  used  exclusively  by  men,  others  by  women.  “ Father,”  as 
spoken  by  a girl,  is  one  word  ; spoken  by  a boy,  it  is  another ; 
and  nothing  is  considered  more  vulgar  among  these  people  than 
for  a man  to  use  a woman’s  word,  or  a woman  a man’s. 

At  the  dawn  of  day  the  governor  of  the  town  goes  up  to  the 


CLIFF  DWEU.FRS. 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


139 


top  of  his  house  and  calls  on  the  people  to  come  forth.  In  a 
few  minutes  the  upper  story  of  the  town  is  covered  with  men, 
women,  and  children.  He  harangues  them  briefly  on  the 
duties  of  the  day;  then,  as  the  sun  is  about  to  rise,  they  all  sit 
down,  draw  their  blankets  over  their  heads,  and  peer  out  through 
a little  opening  and  watch  for  the  sun.  As  the  upper  limb  ap- 
pears above  the  horizon  every  person  murmurs  a prayer,  and 
continues  until  the  whole  disk  is  seen,  when  the  prayer  ends  and 
the  people  turn  to  their  various  avocations.  The  young  men 
gather  in  the  court  about  the  deep  fountain,  stripped*  naked, 
except  that  each  one  has  a belt  to  which  are  attached  bones, 
hoofs,  horns,  or  metallic  bells,  which  they  have  been  able  to  pro- 
cure from  white  men.  These  they  lay  aside  for  a moment, 
plunge  into  the  water,  step  out,  tie  on  their  belts,  and  dart  away 
on  their  morning  races  over  the  rocks,  running  as  if  for  dear  life. 
Then  the  old  men  collect  the  little  boys,  sometimes  with  little 
whips,  and  compel  them  to  go  through  the  same  exercises. 
When  the  athletes  return,  each  family  gathers  in  the  large  room 
for  breakfast.  This  over,  the  women  ascend  to  the  tops  of  the 
houses  to  dress  their  hair,  and  the  men  depart  to  the  fields  or 
woods,  or  gather  in  the  kiva  to  chat  or  weave. 

The  theology  of  these  people  seems  to  be  complicated.  They 
acknowledge  a Supreme  or  Great  Spirit,  the  Creator  of  men, 
symbolized  by  the  sun  or  by  fire,  but  consider  the  planets,  sun, 
moon,  and  stars  the  workmanship  of  a beneficent  spirit  of  miracu- 
lous power  and  strength  and  most  loving  disposition,  who  dwelt 
among  men  and  exerted  his  various  powers  to  help  them.  This 
beneficent  divinity,  who  bears  strong  analogies  to  the  Hercules 
of  the  Greeks,  the  Divine  Emperor  of  the  Chinese,  and  the  Hia- 
watha of  the  Northern  Indians,  they  named  Ma-chi-ta,  and  they 
never  tire  of  telling  of  his  loving  tenderness  to  complaining  and 
ungrateful  humanity. 

But  they  worshipped  also  the  powers  and  forces  of  nature,  at 
least  to  the  extent  of  prayer  and  homage.  The  aridity  of  their 
soil  made  water,  and  especially  rain,  a prime  necessity,  and  Col- 
onel Powell  gives  us  a prayer  which  he  heard  addressed,  with  a 
'^.  ariety  of  other  ceremonies,  to  Mu-ing-wa,  the  rain-god,  by  one 


140  RELIGIOUS  WORSHIP  OF  MOQUIS. 

of  the  Moqui  priests:  “ Mu-ing-wa ! very  good;  thou  dost  love 
us,  for  thou  didst  bring  us  up  from  the  lower  world.*  Thou 
didst  teach  our  fathers,  and  their  wisdom  has  descended  to  us. 
We  eat  no  stolen  bread.  No  stolen  sheep  are  found  in  our 
Hocks.  Our  young  men  ride  not  on  the  stolen  ass.  We  be- 
seech thee,  Mu-ing-wa,  that  thou  wouldst  dip  thy  brush,  made 
of  the  feathers  of  the  birds  of  heaven,  into  the  lakes  of  the  skies 
and  scatter  water  over  the  earth,  even  as  I scatter  water  over 
the  floor  of  this  kiva  ; Mu-ing-wa,  very  good.”  After  scattering 
white  sand  over  the  floor,  the  old  priest  prayed  that  during  the 
coming  season  Mu-ing-wa  would  break  the  ice  in  the  lakes  of 
heaven,  and  grind  it  into  ice-dust  (snow),  and  scatter  it  over  the 
land  so  that  during  the  coming  winter  the  ground  might  be  pre- 
pared for  the  planting  of  another  crop.  Then,  after  another 
ceremony  with  kernels  of  corn,  he  prayed  that  the  corn  might 
be  impregnated  with  the  life  of  the  water,  and  made  to  bring 
forth  an  abundant  harvest.  After  a ceremony  with  certain  jewels 
which  seemed  to  be  a part  of  the  sacred  emblems  kept  in  the 
kiva,  he  prayed  that  the  corn  might  ripen  and  each  kernel  be- 
come as  hard  as  one  of  the  jewels.  This  petition  would  seem 
to  imply  the  desire  that  it  might  be  preserved  from  the  insect 
pests  which  do  not  attack  the  corn  when  it  has  become  plenty. 
There  seems  to  be  in  their  theology  no  place  for  the  sacrifice 
of  animals,  much  less  of  human  beings.  All  their  sacrifices  were 
of  fruits,  flowers,  and  seeds.  The  villages  visited  by  Prof  New- 
berry in  the  San  Juan  region  differed  very  little  either  in  their 
religious  worship,  their  habits  and  customs,  or  their  language 
from  these  inhabitants  of  Tusayan.  They  cultivated  only  the 
blue  corn,  and  their  bread,  made  in  the  same  way  as  that  de- 
scribed by  Colonel  Powell,  resembled  nothing  else  so  much  as  a 
ream  of  druggists’  blue  paper.  Colonel  Powell,  after  careful 
inquiry,  estimated  the  inhabitants  of  these  seven  villages  as. 
about  2,700.  The  names  of  the  villages  are  O-raibi,  Shi-pau-i- 
luv-i,  Mi-shong-i-ni-vi,  Shong-a-pa-vi,  Te-wa,-  Wol-pi,  and  Si- 


* This  declaration  would  seem  to  identify  Mu-ing-wa,  the  rain-god,  with  Ma-chi  ta,  their 
heroic  deliverer  and  helper,  for  it  was  one  of  his  special  benefits  conferred  upon  man  that  he- 
brought  him  up  from  the  lower  world  and  raised  for  him  the  sky  to  its  present  altitude. 


OCA'  ires/ c A' X km/'/ra:.  j 

choam-a-vi.  Prof.  Newberry  found  a smaller  number,  perhaps 
not  much  more  than  i,ooo,  on  the  mesas  of  the  San  Juan  region  ; 
but  the  ruins  of  their  towns  and  villages,  some  of  them  of  great 
size  and  strength  and  of  remarkable  architectural  beauty,  crown 
the  summits  of  almost  every  mesa  and  hill-top  throughout  Ne- 
vada, Utah,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Southern  Cali- 
fornia. “ Not  only  Salt  Lake  City,  but  nearly  every  settlement 
in  the  Territory  of  Utah,  and  many  in  the  State  of  Nevada,”  says 
Colonel  Powell,  “ are  built  on  the  site  of  one  of  these  ancient 
towns.  They  have  been  found  also  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  near  Golden  City,  and  southward  from  that 
point.” 

Who  were  these  people,  and  from  whence  did  they  come  ? 
Colonel  Powell,  on  somewhat  insufficient  evidence,  thinks  them 
related  to  the  Shoshones,  Utes,  Pi-Utes,  and  Comanches,  and 
regards  the  Navajos  and  Apaches,  with  some  of  the  smaller 
tribes  in  California,  as  the  intruders  who  have  pursued  them  so 
mercilessly  and  nearly  destroyed  them  from  off  the  face  of  the 
(iarth.  The  arguments  by  which  he  supports  this  theory  seem 
to  us  far  from  satisfactory.  The  erection  of  these  massive  build- 
ings, the  progress  in  agriculture,  the  entire  avoidance  of  a no- 
madic life,  the  proficiency  in  ceramic  art,  the  ability  to  spin  and 
weave  wool  and  cotton  so  dextrously,  the  daily  preparation  of 
skilfully  cooked  food,  the  worship  of  the  sun,  the  virgin  priest- 
esses, and  the  complex  system  of  religious  belief,  all  indicate  a 
superiority  over  the  Utes,  Shoshones,  and  Comanches  which  is 
entirely  incompatible  with  any  recent  common  origin  with  them-, 
whatever  may  be  the  supposed  affinities  of  language.  It  is  no 
new  thing  for  a conquered  nation  to  force  upon  its  conquerors 
its  own  language.  The  Saxons  did  this  with  the  Normans;  the 
Malays  have  done  it  with  the  Chinese.  Their  affinities  of  race,, 
habits,  and  manners,  as  well  as  religion,  seem  to  be  much  nearer 
to  the  Toltecs  and  Peruvians  than  even  to  the  Aztecs,  from 
whom  they  differ  in  language,  and  in  the  sternness  and  cruelty 
of  their  religious  practices,  while  their  difference  from  the  Sho- 
shones, Utes,  and  Comanches  is  infinitely  greater.  Colonel 
Powell  says  that  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  thirty  towns. 


142 


AR/ZOA'A  AS  A HOME  FOR  EMIGRANTS. 


which  were  destroyed  have  become  nomadic,  “ for  the  Co-a-ni-nis 
and  Wal-la-pais,  who  now  live  in  the  rocks  and  deep  gorges  of 
the  San  Francisco  Plateau,  claim  that  they  once  dwelt  in  pueblos 
or  towns  near  where  Zuni  now  stands.”  This  is  possible,  though 
from  what  little  is  known  of  these  tribes,  the  Pimas  or  Maricopas 
would  seem  to  have  had  stronger  claims  to  such  an  origin  ; but, 
if  true,  it  is  one  of  those  cases  of  degeneration  or  moral  lapse, 
which  can  only  be  accounted  for  on  the  Biblical  ground  of 
Adam’s  fall. 

That  these  Moquis  and  their  kinsmen,  the  ancient  cliff-dwellers, 
were  originally  of  Asiatic  origin,  and  migrated  from  that  portion 
of  Asia  inhabited  by  the  Aryan  race,  is  too  evident  to  need 
demonstration  ; and  those  who  are  so  zealous  to  find  on  .this 
continent  the  descendants  of  the  lost  ten  tribes,  may  find  among 
them  a more  hopeful  quest  than  among  the  Anglo-Saxons  of 
Europe  or  America. 

But  mining  is  the  pursuit  in  which  Arizona,  like  the  adjacent 
State  of  Nevada,  is  likely  to  be  pre-eminent.  Transportation  for 
mining  products  is  now  good  and  will  soon  be  better ; capital  is 
flowing  into  the  Territory.  The  Indians  have  ceased  to  be  trou- 
blesome in  the  mining  districts,  and  wood  and  water,  two  indis- 
pensable requisites  for  successful  mining,  though  not  as  abundant 
as  desirable,  are  yet  to  be  had  and  without  excessive  cost;  while 
the  placers,  veins  and  lodes,  already  opened  or  now  opening,  indi- 
cate deposits  of  the  precious  metals,  richer  than  those  of  any 
other  State  or  Territory  in  the  West. 


CHAPTER  II. 
ARKAmAS. 


Arkansas  and  Louisiana  form  the  southeastern  States  of 
“Our  Western  Empire.”  Arkansas  is  washed  by  the  waters  of 


SURFACE  AND  7 OrOCRA/V/V  OF  ARKANSAS.  i 

the  Mississippi  along  nearly  all  of  its  eastern  boundary,  separat- 
ing it  from  Tennessee,  except  for  the  space  of  one  county,  where 
it  has  the  St.  Francis  river  for  its  eastern  bound,  and  Missouri 
claims  the  little  peninsula  between  the  St.  Francis  and  the  Mis- 
sissippi rivers.  On  the  north,  it  is  bounded  by  Missouri ; on  the 
south,  by  Louisiana,  and  on  the  west  by  Texas  and  the  Indian 
Territory.  It  lies  between  the  parallels  of  33°  and  36°  30'  north 
latitude,  and  between  the  meridians  of  89°  40'  and  94°  42'  west 
longitude  from  Greenwich;  Its  area  is  52,198  square  miles  or 
33,406,720  acres,  one-sixth  larger  than  the  State  of  New  York, 
and  about  the  same  size  as  England  without  Wales. 

Surface  and  Topography. — The  eastern  portion  of  the  State,, 
from  30  to  100  miles  west  of  the  Mississippi,  is  generally  low, 
containing  many  lakes,  bayous  and  swamps,  and  is,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  some  of  the  more  elevated  bluffs,  subject  to  occasional 
inundation  from  the  Mississippi  river.  These  inundations,  though 
sufficiently  extensive  to  occasion  much  loss,  seldom  or  never 
cover  the  whole  of  these  lowlands,  which  rise  gradually  toward 
the  foot-hills  of  the  Ozark  range. 

The  land  rises  by  gradual  stages  from  this  low  valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  to  the  elevated  plateaux  of  the  central  part  of  the 
State,  as  well  as  to  the  Black  Hills  in  the  north,  and  Ouachita 
Hills  in  the  west.  But  the  principal  mountain  range  in  the  State 
is  the  Ozark,  which,  beginning  in  the  southwest,  trends  north- 
eastward and  northward,  spreading  out  into  broad  table-lands 
with  narrow  and  deep  ravines,  and  occasionally  rising  into  higher 
summits,  though  of  no  great  height.  The  general  elevation  of 
these  table-lands  is  from  1,500  to  2,000  feet,  and  some  of  the 
rounded  knobs  may  rise  from  500  to  800  feet  higher.  The  hills, 
of  this  range  have  distinct  local  names,  such  as  Pea  Ridge  and 
Boston  Mountains  (both  famous  during  the  late  civil  war),  north 
of  the  Arkansas  river,  and  Massime  Mountains  south  of  that 
river.  The  line  of  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and  Southern 
Railway,  which  crosses  the  State  diagonally  from  northeast  to 
southwest,  nearly  marks  the  line  of  division  of  the  higher  forest 
and  mineral  lands  from  the  plain,  prairie  and  lowlands  in  the 
east  and  southeast  of  the  State.  Large  deposits  of  valuable 


144 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


minerals  are  found  in  the  northern  division.  The  mountains,  table- 
lands and  valleys  of  this  division  present  generally  a rich  surface, 
good  drainage,  romantic  and  picturesque  scenery,  and  a produc- 
tiveness remarkable  for  the  formations  and  latitude.  The  south- 
ern, southeastern  and  eastern  divisions  have  rich  tertiary,  post- 
tertiary  and  alluvial  deposits  which  are  not  excelled  in  fertility 
by  any  land  on  the  globe.  Exempt  alike  from  the  intense  heat 
-of  the  extreme  south,  and  the  severe  cold  of  the  north,  the  genial 
climate  and  fertile  soil  of  the  State  yield  in  abundance  the  rich 
productions  of  both  regions.  The  rich  bottom-lands  will  pro- 
duce, under  favorable  conditions,  from  fifty  to  sixty  bushels  of 
Indian  corn,  and  about  450  pounds  of  cotton  per  acre,  which  is 
•considered  a fair  average  crop.  With  better  and  more  careful 
culture,  they  are  capable  of  greatly  exceeding  this  average,  and 
in  some  instances  do  exceed  it. 

Rive7's. — Arkansas  is  abundantly  supplied  with  navigable 
rivers,  so  distributed  as  to  give  access  interiorly  to  all  parts  of 
the  State.  The  great  boundary  on  the  east  is  formed  by  the 
mighty  Mississippi.  The  St.  Francis  on  the  northeast,  which 
rises  in  southeastern  Missouri  and  flows  through  the  low,  un- 
dulating portions  of  the  northeast,  where  it  intermingles  with 
lakes,  creeks  and  paludal  surfaces,  is  a tributary  of  the  Mississippi. 
It  is  navigable  to  and  beyond  the  Missouri  line. 

The  White  river  rises  m northwestern  Arkansas,  flows 
through  the  lower  southwestern  counties  of  Missouri,  and  returns 
to  the  State,  joining  its  affluent,  the  Black  river,  which  affords, 
from  the  confluence,  almost  at  all  seasons,  navigation  for  a dis- 
tance of  350  miles.  White  river,  with  its  tributaries,  gives  drain- 
age for  a broad  expanse  of  country  from  the  northwestern,  mid- 
dle and  northeastern  parts  of  the  northern  section  of  the  State. 

The  Arkansas  river,  one  of  the  largest  tributaries  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, rises  in  the  mountains  of  Colorado,  and  flows  easterly 
for  a distance  of  2,000  miles  to  join  the  Mississippi.  White  river 
is  an  affluent,  flowing  into  it  near  its  mouth.  The  Arkansas 
river  bisects  and  drains  this  vast  country  ; it  is  navigable  entirely 
across  the  State,  and,  during  high  water,  beyond  it,  far  up  into 
the  Indian  d'crritory.  The  Ouachita,  with  its  tributaries,  drains 


RIVERS  IN  ARKANSAS. 


14^ 


almost  the  entire  State  lying  south  of  the  Arkansas  river,  or  all 
that  surface  lying  between  it  and  the  Red  river.  It  is  navigable 
250  miles.  The  Red  river  is  the  southwestern  channel  of  drain- 
age, and  is  navigable  throughout  its  course  in  the  State,  a distance 
of  about  100  miles. 

Black  river  rises  in  Southeastern  Missouri  and  crosses  five 
counties,  discharging  its  waters  into  the  White  river.  It  is  navi- 
gable from  its  mouth  to  the  Missouri  line. 

Saline  river  rises  in  Saline  county,  and,  after  passing  through 
six  counties,  discharges  into  the  Ouachita  in  Union  county.  It 
is  navigable  for  100  miles. 

Bayou  Bartholomew,  another  tributary  of  the  Ouachita,  is 
navigable  in  the  State  for  about  150  miles. 

The  Little  river,  an  affluent  of  the  Red  river,  and  the  Little 
Red  river,  an  affluent  of  the  White  river,  are  both  navigable  for 
from  fifty  to  seventy-five  miles  for  six  months  of  the  year. 

The  Petit  Jean,  a tributary  of  the  Arkansas,  is  navigable  for 
about  seventy-five  miles. 

Several  smaller  streams,  such  as  the  Cache,  Dorcheat,  L’Aigu- 
ille  and  Antoine,  are  navigable  a part  of  the  year. 

Nearly  every  county  in  the  State  is  traversed  by  one  or  more 
of  these  navigable  streams,  which,  with  their  branches,  form  a 
navigable  highway  within  the  State  of  more  than  3,000  miles, 
•and  secure  an  abundant  supply  of  water  to  every  county. 

Most  of  these  streams  have  their  sources  in  springs  in  the 
hills  or  .mountains,  and  furnish  abundant  and  permanent  water 
power  for  manufacturing  purposes.  Of  one  of  these  springs,  the 
fountain-head  of  Spring  river,  a clear,  limpid  stream  which  flows 
through  Fulton,  Sharp  and  Randolph  counties,  emptying  into 
Black  river.  Professor  D.  D.  Owen,  in  his  Geological  Recom 
moissance  of  Arkansas,  thus  speaks  : 

“The  country  is  well  watered,  and  possesses  many  fine  water- 
powers — even  at  the  very  fountain-head  of  some  of  its  numerous 
limpid  calcareous  streams,  which  frequently  burst  forth  from 
•among  the  ledges  of  rock.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these 
forms  the  fountain-head  of  the  main  fork  of  Spring  river,  known 
•as  the  ‘ Mammoth  Spring,’  in  Fulton  county,  welling  up  on  the 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


146 

south  side  ot  a low,  rocky  ridge,  from  a submerged  abyss 
beneath  of  sixty-four  feet,  and  constituting,  at  its  very  source,  a 
respectable  lake  of  about  one-sixteenth  of  a mile  from  north  to 
south,  and  one-fifth  to  one-sixth  of  that  distance  from  east  to 
west. 

“ It  is  said  by  those  who  have  sounded  the  bottom,  that  there 
are  large  cavities  and  crevices  in  the  rock,  and  that  the  main 
body  of  the  water  issues  from  a large  cavernous  opening,  of 
some  forty  yards  in  circumference.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
it  boils  up  at  the  rate  of  about  8,000  barrels  per  minute ; the 
correctness  of  this  estimate  we  had  no  means  of  verifying,  but  it 
may  be  safely  estimated  that  the  average  constant  flow  would  be 
at  least  sufficient  to  propel  from  twelve  to  fifteen  run  of  stones. 

“The  uniform  temperature  (60°  Fahrenheit)  and  composition 
of  the  water  is  peculiarly  congenial  to  the  growth  of  a variety  of 
cryptogamic,  aquatic  plants,  possessing  highly  nutritive  qualities, 
both  for  herbivorous  animals  and  birds. 

“In  the  early  settlement  of  the  country,  herds  of  herbivorous 
wild  animals  travelled  from  great  distances  to  this  fountain  for 
both  food  and  water,  as  well  as  flocks  of  wild  fowl.  Now  the 
cattle  of  the  neighboring  farms  may  be  seen  wading  in  its  waters 
up  to  their  middle,  and  browsing  on  the  herbage,  which  appears 
peculiarly  congenial  to  their  tastes;  it  is,  also,  a general  resort 
of  geese,  ducks  and  other  aquatic  birds.  It  affords  valuable 
water-power  for  general  manufacturing  purposes.” 

In  addition  to  her  water-courses,  Arkansas  is  reasonably  well 
supplied  with  railways,  which  are  being  extended  so  as  to 
embrace  every  section  of  the  State. 

The  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and  Southern  road  runs 
diagonally  across  the  State,  a distance  of  300  miles,  making  con- 
nections with  roads  east  and  west.  This  is  a land-grant  road, 
holding  nearly  a million  and  a quarter  acres  of  choice  lands  in 
this  State  which  it  offers  to  immigrants  at  very  low  rates,  and  by 
its  enterprise  has  attracted  many  immigrants  to  the  State.  As 
a general  rule  an  immigrant,  in  this  State  particularly,  will  do 
better  to  buy  of  the  State  or  United  States  government,  the 
lands  he  needs ; but  if,  for  any  cause.  He  prefers  to  buy  of  a raib 


RAILWAYS  hV  ARKANSAS. 


147 


road  company,  he  will  find  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and 
Southern  Railway  will  treat  him  fairly  and  honorably,  as  will  the 
other  land-grant  railways  also. 

The  Memphis  and  Little  Rock  road  extends  from  the  capital 
to  Memphis. 

The  Little  Rock  and  Fort  Smith  road  is  running  a distance  of 
168  miles,  up  the  valley  of  Arkansas,  to  the  Indian  border. 

The  Little  Rock,  Pine  Bluft  and  New  Orleans  road  is  com- 
pleted and  running  a distance  of  eighty  miles,  from  Pine  Bluff  to 
Arkansas  City,  on  the  Mississippi  river.  A survey  has  recently 
been  made  of  the  gap  between  this  city  and  Pine  Bluff,  which 
will  soon  be  built. 

The  Mississippi,  Ouachita  and  Red  River  road  is  completed, 
a distance  of  about  thirty  miles  west  from  Chicot. 

The  Arkansas  Central  (narrow-gauge)  is  completed  a distance 
of  about  sixty  miles,  and  runs  trains  regularly  between  Claren- 
don on  White  river,  and  Helena  on  the  Mississippi. 

A narrow-gauge  road  Is  in  operation  between  Malvern,  a 
point  on  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and  Southern  Railway, 
and  the  famous  Hot  Springs,  thus  giving  the  outside  world  a 
continuous  line  of  railway  to  the  Springs. 

Climate  and  Rainfall. — The  climate  of  Arkansas,  except  In 
the  lowlands  near  the  Mississippi,  is  better  entitled  to  be  called 
temperate  than  perhaps  any  other  in  the  United  States.  The 
streams  are  not  closed  by  Ice  in  the  winter,  nor  is  the  earth 
parched  by  drought  in  summer.  The  two  points  most  character- 
istic of  the  climate  of  the  State  are  Little  Rock,  the  capital,  for 
the  moderately  elevated  table-lands,  and  Hopefield,  opposite 
Memphis,  Tennessee,  for  the  lowlands.  In  Little  Rock  the 
mean  annual  temperature  for  a series  of  years  is  62^.66  F'ahren- 
heit ; the  highest  pointy  generally  reached  in  August  or  Septem- 
ber, and  for  not  more  than  one  or  two  days,  96°  ; the  lowest, 
generally  reached  In  December,  or  more  rarely  in  January,  4°; 
the  annual  range,  92°.  The  average  rainfall  is  from  fifty-five  to. 
sixty  inches  annually.  In  the  more  mountainous  region  in  the 
northern  and  northwestern  part  of  the  State  the  mean  annual 
temperature  is  about  60°  Fahrenheit,  and  the  rainfall  a trifle  less 
than  at  Little  Rock. 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


148 

At  Hopefield  the  heat  of  the  hot  months  is  longer  continued, 
though  but  little  higher. 

The  average  maximum  temperature,  which  is  reached  per- 
haps on  twelve  or  fifteen  days  of  the  summer,  is  98°  Fahrenheit. 
In  exceptionally  hot  summers  it  may  rise  to  101°. 5,  but  not  for 
more  than  one  or  two  days.  The  mean  of  the  summer  months 
is  8i°.4.  The  average  minimum  is  9°,  rising  some  years  to  17°, 
and  at  others  sinking  to  2°.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  year 
is  60°. 6.  The  average  rainfall  63.42  inches. 

Hon.  John  R.  Eakin,  Chancellor  of  the  Pulaski  Chancery 
Court,  an  eminent  agriculturist  and  author  of  a treatise  on  vini- 
culture, speaking  in  that  work  of  a peculiarity  in  the  climate  of 
Central  Arkansas,  says : 

“In  the  Eastern  and  Northwestern  States,  they  all  try  to 
avoid  a northern  exposure.  Our  country  is  somewhat  differently 
situated,  especially  that  portion  lying  west  of  the  Ouachita  and 
between  the  mountain  ranges  south  of  the  Arkansas.  It  may 
be  well  to  dwell  on  this  a little.  This  section  of  country,  and 
also  that  north  of  the  Arkansas  river  for  a considerable  distance, 
is  the  only  part  of  the  United  States  protected  against  violent 
winds.  The  mountains  which  shield  it  range  east  and  west. 
The  Blue  Ridge,  Allegheny,  and  Cumberland  Mountains  run  in 
a north  and  south  direction,  and,  except  in  sheltered  nooks  pro- 
tected by  spurs,  the  winds  rush  down  on  each  side  of  them  from 
Labrador  and  Hudson’s  Bay.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the 
northern  portion  of  Missouri,  with  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Indiana, 
and  on  down  the  Mississippi  and  the  Southern  States  east  of 
the  river.  These  north  winds  are  very  sudden  and  destructive, 
bringing,  in  twenty-four  hours,  the  climate  of  the  frigid  zone — 
throwing  against  vegetation  the  identical  air  that  was  but  yes- 
terday on  an  iceberg.  This  influence  is  greatly  modified  with 
us.  These  hills,  to  our  north,  perform  the  .same  office  which  the 
Alps  do  to  Italy.  This,  as  to  climate,  is  the  Italy  of  the  United 
States.” 

Sudden  changes  in  the  climate  are  less  frequent  than  in  the 
Eastern  and  Western  States.  All  evidence  demonstrates  that 
there  is  not,  on  this  continent,  any  locality  superior  to  this  region 


A KANSAS  AS  A HEALTH  RESORT 


149 

for  the  equable  character  of  its  climate  and  its  freedom  from  sud- 
den changes  and  violent  winds. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  said  that  Arkansas,  and  espe- 
cially this  central  region,  has  a deservedly  high  reputation  for 
the  relief  of  pulmonary  diseases.  It  strongly  resembles  that  of 
Mentone  and  Pau  in  the  south  of  France.  The  tables  of  vital 
statistics  of  the  census  fully  showed  that  no  part  of  the 
United  States  was  so  favorable  for  consumptives  as  this,  and 
partly  no  doubt  for  the  reason  which  Chancellor  Eakin  has 
stated.  The  air,  though  mild  and  not  subject  to  sudden  changes, 
is  not  sufficiently  hot  to  be  relaxing,  and  respiration  is  not  so 
difficult  as  in  the  thinner  air  of  the  elevated  plateaux  of  Colorado 
and  New  Mexico.  The  difference  may  be  stated  in  another 
'way:  the  invalid  who  goes  to  Colorado  may  recover  his  health 
partly  or  wholly,  but  he  must  stay  there.  If  he  attempts  to 
return  East  after  one  or  two  years  the  disease  returns  and 
•speedily  proves  fatal.  In  Arkansas,  on  the  contrary,  the  process 
of  cure  is  radical,  and  the  invalid,  after  one  or  two  years,  may 
return  to  the  East  without  fear  of  the  recurrence  of  the  disease. 

Minerals  and  Mineral  a7id  Hot  Springs. has  a 
‘great  variety-  of  mineral  deposits,  most  of  them  of  excellent 
quality  and  apparently  of  unlimited  abundance.  Eirst  in  econ- 
omic importance  are  its  immense  beds  of  coal.  The  Arkansas 
eoal-fields  have  an  estimated  area  of  i 2,000  square  miles,  wholly, 
so  far  as  known  at  present,  in  the  valley  of  the  Arkansas  river, 
though  the  carboniferous  basin  may  prove  to  extend  southward 
beyond  that  valley.  The  Arkansas  river  runs  for  more  than 
150  miles  through  this  coal  formation.  The  counties  of  Wash^ 
ington,  Crawford,  Sebastian,  Eranklin,  Scott,  Logan,  Johnson, 
Yell,  Pope,  Perry,  Conway,  White,  and  Pulaski,  are  almost  en- 
itirely  situated  in  this  coal  basin.  The  veins  vary  from  one  to 
nine  feet  in  thickness,  though  most  of  those  which  have  been 
worked  are  from  four  to  nine  feet  thick.  It  is  found  at  from  six 
to  fifty  feet  below  the  surface.  The  coal  is  similar  in  structure 
and  appearance  to  the  Cumberland  coal  of  Maryland,  and  an- 
alysis, as  well  as  use,  demonstrates  its  practical  identity  in  quality 
with  that  well-known  coal.  It  proves  to  be  an  excellent  steam- 


OUR  WESTERiW  EMPIRE. 


I 5o 

producing  and  manufacturing  coal,  and  commands  a high  pricft 
for  both  purposes.  Mines  have  been  opened  and  are  now  in 
successful  operation  near  Russellville  and  Ouita  in  Pope  county, 
at  Spadia,  and  at  Horsehead,  in  Johnson  county,  and  at  several 
points  in  Sebastian  and  other  counties.  The  coal  has  been  used 
freely  in  Little  Rock,  St.  Louis,  Memphis,  and  New  Orleans,  and 
wherever  tested  it  sells  readily  at  a higher  price  than  any  other 
coal  in  the  market.  Inexhaustible  deposits  of  haematite  and 
other  iron  ores  are  found  in  close  proximity  to  these  coal-beds, 
and  limestone  of  the  best  kinds  for  fluxing  purposes  and  heavy 
forests  of  hard  wood  for  charcoal  are  close  by.  Large  and 
never-failing  water-powers  are  contiguous  to  these  coal  and  iron 
deposits.  In  the  present  demand  for  iron  and  steel,  Arkansas 
offers  extraordinary  facilities  for  its  successful  manufacture. 

Several  zinc  mines  have  been  opened  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  State,  principally  in  Lawrence  and  Sharp  counties — which 
are  as  rich  in  every  respect  as  any  in  the  Union.  Lead  and 
silver  are  abundant,  and  several  mines  are  now  being  profitably 
worked.  Notable  among  these  are  the  Kellogg  mine,  eleven 
miles  north  of  Little  Rock,  two  mines  in  Sevier,  one  in  Mont- 
gomery, another  in  Boone,  and  perhaps  others.  These  mines 
are  sufficiently  rich  in  silver  (argentiferous  galena  ores,  yielding 
about  fifty  ounces  of  silver  to  the  ton)  to  leave  the  lead  as  a clear 
profit,  after  paying  all  expenses  of  mining,  smelting,  etc. 

There  are  extensive  caves  of  nitre  and  nitrous  earth  in  New- 
ton and  other  northern  counties  of  the  State,  from  which  large 
quantities  of  powder  were  manufactured  and  used  by  the  Con- 
federates during  the  recent  war. 

There  are  also  numerous  salt  springs — some  of  which  are 
being  profitably  worked,  notably  one  near  Arkadelphia,  which 
supplied  salt  for  the  entire  army  of  Arkansas  during  its  occupa- 
tion by  the  Confederates  in  1862-3. 

Valuable  mines  of  copper  have  been  discovered  in  Montgomery 
and  other  counties,  though  no  efforts  have  been  made  to  work 
them. 

The  manganese  deposits  are  of  considerable  extent  and  rich- 
ness. 


MINERALS  OE  ARKANSAS. 


i5i 

The  novaculite  or  whetstone  quarries  near  Hot  Springs  furnish 
a rock  which  has  gained  almost  a world-wide  fame,  and  its  supply 
is  inexhaustible. 

Marble  of  superior  quality  and  in  exhaustless  quantities  has 
been  discovered  in  Boone  and  Newton  counties,  a block  of  which 
has  been  placed  in  the  Washington  Monument. 

Gypsum,  kaolin,  slate,  limestone,  granite,  marl,  chrome  and 
other  minerals  for  use  as  mineral  paints,  are  among  the  economic 
minerals  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  State,  but  few  of  them 
are  as  yet  mined  or  quarried  to  any  great  extent. 

Dr.  Lawrence,  of  Hot  Springs,  contributed  to  the  Centennial 
Exposition  a collection  of  minerals,  mostly  from  Magnet  Cave, 
Hot  Springs  county,  among  which  were  manganite,  or  black 
oxide  of  manganese  ; melanite,  or  crystallized  black  garnets ; 
green,  yellow  and  black  mica  ; crystallized  schorlamites  ; quartz 
crystallized  ; crystals  of  Perofskite,  hornblende,  elaeolite,  epidote, 
strontianite,  Shepardite,  Lydian  stone  or  touchstone,  agate,  hydro- 
titanite,  titanic  iron,  sulphur  from  iron  pyrites,  talc,  rutite,  isolated 
and  in  quartz  ; rose,  smoky  and  milky  quartz,  chert,  bu’rrstone ; 
the  hornblendes,  novaculite,  quartzite,  syenite  and  granite. 

T/ie  Hot  Sprmgs  of  Arkansas  are  situated  in  Hot  Springs 
county,  about  sixty  miles  southwest  from  Little  Rock.  A narrow 
gauge  railroad,  twenty-five  miles  in  length,  now  conveys  passen- 
gers directly  to  the  springs  from  Malvern  Junction,  on  the  St. 
Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and  Southern  Railway.  The  springs,  now 
sixty-six  in  number,  are  in  a wild,  mountainous  region,  issuing 
from  the  western  slope  of  a spur  of  the  Ozark  range,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  about  1,400  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  range  in  tem- 
perature from  93°  to  150°  Fahr.  They  discharge  over  500,000 
gallons  of  water  daily,  sufficient  in  quantity  to  accommodate,  with 
delightful  bathing,  10,000  bathers  every  day  in  the  year.  These 
natural  earth-heated  waters  hold  in  solution  valuable  mineral 
constituents.  Clear,  tasteless,  inodorous,  they  pour  forth  from 
the  novaculite  ridge  as  pure  and  sparkling  as  the  pellucid  Neva. 
The  various  springs  are  qualitatively  allied,  not  holding  in  solu- 
tion or  freighted  with  too  many  mineral  constituents,  and  they 
are  free  from  all  noxious  gases.  It  is  believed  that  the  proper- 


i52 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


ties  of  the  waters,  especially  in  the  treatment  of  chronic  diseases,, 
and  particularly  chronic  rheumatism,  scrofula,  etc.,  are  unequalled. 
There  are  no  springs  known  of  superior  value,  or  that  can  com- 
pare with  the  Hot  Springs  of  Arkansas,  as  adjuncts  in  the  treat- 
ment of  that  class  of  chronic  diseases.  The  advantages  of  the 
climate  throughout  the  entire  year,  the  pure,  rarefied  mountain 
air,  the  delightful  waters,  all  make  these  springs  one  of  the  most 
delightful  resorts  for  invalids  in  the  United  States. 

Within  from  seven  to  twelve  miles  of  Hot  Springs  are  other 
springs,’ sulphurous  and  chalybeate,  but  not  hot,  to  which  many 
of  the  physicians  order  their  patients  after  two  or  three  courses 
of  the  Hot  Springs  treatment,  and  the  change  greatly  facilitates 
their  recovery.  The  Hot  Springs  waters  are  not  only  used  for 
bathing  and  for  hot  vapor  baths,  but  the  water  is  drank  in  large 
quantities,  as  hot  as  it  can  be  borne,  and  with  great  benefit. 
There  are  about  6,000  inhabitants  in  Hot  Springs  City,  and  it  is 
said  that  10,000  or  more  invalids  annually  avail  themselves  of  its 
baths  and  healing  medicinal  waters. 

Numerous  analyses  of  the  waters,  which  vary  but  slightly  in 
their  contents,  though  materially  in  their  temperature,  show  that 
among  the  solid  constituents  of  a gallon  of  the  water  are  found 
the  following : 


Silicates  with  base. 
Bicarbonate  of  Lime, 
Bicarbonate  of  Magnesia, 
Carbonate  of  Soda, 
Carbonate  of  Potassa, 
Carbonate  of  Lithia, 
Sulphate  of  Magnesia, 
Chloride  of  Magnesia, 


Alumina  with  Oxide  of  IroUj 
Oxide  of  Manganese, 
Sulphate  of  Lime,? 
*Arseniate  of  Lime,? 
"^Arseniate  of  Iron,? 
^Bromine, 

Iodine,  a trace. 

Organic  matter,  a trace. 


The  city  of  Hot  Springs  is  in  a deep  ravine,  and  the  springs 
issue  from  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  on  either  side — those 
on  one  side  being  of  much  higher  temperature  than  those  on 
the  other.  The  city  consists  of  one  very  long  and  not  very 


* These  salts  and  elements  were  in  very  minute  quantity  in  any  of  the  waters,  and  were  nol 
found  at  all  in  some  of  those  examined. 


FORESl'S  AND  VEGETATION  OF  ARKANSAS. 


i53 

wide  street,  with  short  streets  running  up  the  hills  on  either 
side.  It  has  almost  as  many  hotels,  boarding-houses,  hospitals 
and  private  dwellings,  and  quite  as  many  physicians  of  all  sorts, 
as  there  are  patients.  The  hills  in  the  vicinity  are  occupied 
very  largely  by  small  farmers  of  the  class  known  .in  the  South  as 
“ poor  whites,”  who  cultivate  a little  corn,  a few  potatoes,  and 
keep  a few  swine,  and  a considerable  number  of  fowls,  and  who 
in  their  indolent  and  rude  way,  succeed  in  eking  out  a bare 
subsistence.  The  whole  region  containing  the  springs  has  long 
been  in  litigation,  and  within  one  or  two  years  has  been  decided 
to  be  the  property  of  the  United  States.  Provision  has  been 
made,  in  a rough  way,  to  extend  the  benefits  of  the  springs  to  the 
very  poor  without  compensation,  and  many  of  these  are  now 
availing  themselves  of  this  privilege. 

Vegetation. — The  area  of  woodland  in  Arkansas  in  1877,  was 
16,815,037  acres,  just  about  one-half  of  its  entire  surface.  The 
rapid  progress  of  railroads  in  the  State  and  adjacent  States  and 
the  demands  for  shipment,  lumber  and  manufactures  may  have 
slightly  decreased  this  amount  within  the  past  thre^e  years,  but 
Arkansas  still  possesses  a larger  proportion  of  timber  lands  than 
any  other  State  or  Territory  of  “ Our  Western  Empire.”  And  a 
very  large  proportion  of  her  timber  is  of  the  very  best  quality, 
much  of  it  the  best  of  the  hard  woods,  and  pines  of  gigantic 
growth.  At  the  Centennial  Exposition  in  Philadelphia,  fifty 
species  of  forest  trees  were  exhibited  (and  these  did  not  nearly 
exhaust  the  entire  number,  found  in  her  forests)  ; these  included 
thirteen  species  of  oak,  varying  in  diameter  from  twenty-one  to 
fifty  inches  ; two  species  of  pine,  thirty-six  inches  through ; black 
walnuts,  forty-two  inches  in  diameter ; hickory  of  three  species, 
thirty-five  to  thirty-nine  inches  through ; a cottonwood,  eighty- 
four  inches,  and  sycamores,  sixty  inches ; red  elm,  sixty-three 
inches;  maple,  two  species,  the  sugar  and  the  curled,  twenty-six 
inches;  three  species  of  gum  trees,  the  tupelo,  black  and  sweet 
gum,  from  twenty-nine  to  thirty-nine  inches  in  diameter ; cypress, 
forty-eight  inches ; yellow  poplar,  forty-five  inches ; American 
elm,  forty-six  inches ; white  ash,  forty-two  inches ; Bois  d’Arc 
(Osage  orange),  twenty-two  inches  ; blue  ash,  twenty-three  inches; 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


I 54 

red  cedar  or  juniper,  sixteen  inches  ; beech,  thirty  inches;  persim- 
mon, twenty-four  inches ; sassafras,  twenty-eight  inches  ; honey 
locust,  twenty  inches,  and  wild  cherry,  nineteen  inches.  The 
supply  of  pine,  cypress  and  oak  is  almost  inexhaustible.  The 
pines  south  of  the  Arkansas  river  grow  to  the  height  of  150 
feet  and  more,  and  are  from  six  to  seven  feet  through. 

At  the  same  exposition  thirty-five  species  of  pasture  grasses, 
many  of  them  new  and  native  to  Arkansas,  were  exhibited,  all 
of  them  yielding  largely  and  much  sought  after  by  cattle.  The 
Alfalfa  and  four  kinds  of  millet  were  also  exhibited,  yielding 
from  four  to  eight  tons  of  dried  forage  to  the  acre. 

All  the  fruits  are  sure  of  luxuriant  growth,  including  as  well 
the  different  kinds  grown  in  the  Northern  States  as  those  which 
nearly  approach  the  tropics.  Apples,  peaches,*  pears,  plums, 
quinces,  cherries,  apricots,  figs,]*  grapes,  strawberries,  and  other 
small  fruits,  grow  luxuriantly  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  and  are 
noted  for  their  size  and  flavor.  In  this  climate  fruit  trees  and 
the  vine  produce  abundantly,  and  ripen  their  fruit  in  the  greatest 
perfection ; and,  though  it  may  seem  incredible  to  northern 
fruit-growers,  yet  we  are  credibly  assured  that  the  fruit  crop  of 
Arkansas  has  not  been  a failure  but  once  in  thirty  years. 

Chancellor  Eakin,  in  his  little  work  on  the  culture  of  the  grape, 
says : 

“ This  is  the  best  region  for  wild  grapes  in  America.  What 
we  mean  to  assert  is,  that  the  region  between  the  Mississippi 
and  the  Staked  Plains,  and  between  the  Missouri  river  and  the 
swamp  lands  of  the  Gulf,  produce  more  and  larger  and  better 
wild  grapes  than  any  other  portion  of  the  known  world.  This 
is  deliberately  said,  after  much  reading,  inquiry,  travel  and  exten- 
sive observation.” 

dflie  growing  of  grapes  for  wine  is  largely  practised  in  the 
State,  as  well  as  the  culture  of  the  other  small  fruits  for  northern 

* The  apples  of  Washington  and  Benton  counties,  and  of  the  southwestern  counties  generally, 
are  noted  for  their  fine  flavor  and  are  in  demand  in  St.  Louis  and  Memphis.  The  peach  seems 
specially  at  home  in  this  State.  The  fruit  is  large  and  of  excellent  flavor,  and  grows  with  very 
little  care.  Peaches  here  ripen  full  four  weeks  earlier  than  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Louis. 

t grow  as  finely  here  as  in  l.ouisiana,  and  nothing  better  can  be  said  of  that  delicious 
fruit. 


ZOOLOO'V  OF  ARk'ANSAS, 


l55 


markets.  All  kinds  of  fruit  and  vegetables  mature  and  are  ready 
for  market  from  three  to  four  weeks  earlier  than  in  the  latitude 
of  St.  Louis ; and  hence  the  culture  of  small  fruits,  and  of  mar- 
ket garden  vegetables,  is  as  profitable  a business  as  a settler 
can  prosecute,  the  transportation  by  river  or  railroad  being 
speedy  and  cheap. 

Animals. — Of  beasts  ol  prey,  there  are  some  black  and 
brown  bears,  though  a much  smaller  number  than  its  exten- 
sive forests  would  justify,  rarely  cougars  and  other  wild  felines. 
The  jaguar  may  sometimes  stray  up  from  his  Texan  haunts,  but 
we  cannot  learn  of  any  hunters  who  have  discovered  him  on  the 
soil  of  Arkansas.  There  are  also  occasionally  wolves,  foxes, 
raccoons,  opossums,  and  perhaps  the  Texan  coyotes.  Peccaries 
and  wild  hogs  are  sometimes  found.  The  buffalo  prefers  the 
plains,  and  the  wooded  mountainous  regions  of  Western  Arkan- 
sas have  no  charms  for  him,  but  there  are  deer  of  two  species  ; 
rarely  the  elk,  but  not  except  by  accident  the  antelope  or  the 
bighorn.  Rabbits  or  hares,  squirrels  of  several  species  and  the 
gopher,  are  the  principal  rodents. 

Birds  of  prey  are  moderately  abundant,  but  mostly  of  the 
eagle  and  vulture  and  hawk  tribes.  Of  game  birds  there  are 
wild  turkeys,  ducks,  partridges,  pinnated  grouse  or  prairie  hens, 
quail,  etc.  Of  the  birds  of  the  State,  there  were  exhibited  at  the 
Centennial  the  bald  eagle  and  the  royal  eagle,  as  well  as  the 
following : 

Wild  duck,  crow,  house-wren,  blue  bird,  bobolink,  sapsucker, 
red-headed  woodpecker,  blue  jay,  kingfisher,  paroquet,  flicker, 
bird  hawk,  robin,  meadow  lark,  mocking  bird,  red  bird,  mammoth 
woodpecker,  cock  of  the  woods  and  the  snake-killer  or  water 
turkey. 

The  rivers,  lakes  and  bayous  are  well  stocked  with  fish, 
among  which  are  pickerel,  black  bass,  buffalo-fish,  cat-fish  and 
shad,  while  the  mountain  streams  have  an  abundance  of  perch, 
roach  and  trout.  In  the  bayous,  lakes  and  in  the  Red,  Ouachita 
and  Arkansas  rivers  the  alligator  sometimes  makes  his  appear- 
ance, though  he  is  less  common  than  in  Louisiana  or  Texas. 

The  copperhead,  the  milk  adder  and  other  reptiles,  venomous 


i56 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


and  harmless,  are  plentiful  in  the  lowlands,  and  the  rattlesnake 
and  moccasin  snake  are  found  in  the  hills. 

The  insect  tribes  in  Arkansas  are  exceedingly  numerous  in 
the  lowlands,  and  well  deserve  the  name  of  pests.  The  mosquito 
of  this  region  is  renowned  for  his  size,  vigor  and  venom,  and  the 
most  fabulous- stories  are  related  of  his  strength  and  audacity.. 
In  the  hills,  however,  this  insect  is  less  troublesome.  The  bot- 
fly, the  tick,  the  chigoe  and  the  guinea-worm  are  very  annoying 
to  man  and  beast.  The  cotton  worm,  the  army  worm  and  sev- 
eral flies  are  destructive  of  vegetation.  Some  of  the  pests  found 
a little  farther  north,  such  as  the  Colorado  beetle  and  the  Rocky 
Mountain  locust,  have  not  visited  Arkansas  in  any  considerable 
numbers. 

Archceology. — There  are  no  ruins  of  ancient  cities  or  towns,, 
indicative  of  its  having  been,  in  the  remote  past,  the  home  of  a 
semi-civilized  race,  in  Arkansas.  Neither  the  Aztec  nor  the 
Toltec  race  seem  to  have  penetrated  so  far  to  the  East.  When- 
De  Soto  visited  what  is  now  Eastern  Arkansas  in  1541,  the 
Natchez,  a tribe  now  extinct,  were  in  possession  there,  and  140. 
years  later  de  La  Salle  found  them  in  possession,  while  the 
Quapaws  were  in  the  northeast,  and  the  Osages  in  the  western 
part  of  the  State.  Of  one  or  other  of  these  tribes,  mounds  and 
relics  have  been  found  in  Hot  Springs,  Garland,  Montgomery 
and  Phillips  counties.  Some  of  these  were  exhibited  at  the 
Centennial,  and  consisted  of  vases,  water  carriers,  bowls,  mortars, 
pestles,  rollers,  discoidal  stones,  scrapers,  skin  dressers  and 
polishers,  axes,  hatchets,  lances,  darts,  pipes,  beads,  amulets, 
ponays  or  Indian  money,  hand  hammers,  sling  balls,  balls  for 
games,  plough  points,  knives  and  drills. 

The  change  in  the  character  of  the  population  is  also  marked: 
In  its  early  days,  both  as  a Territory  and  a State,  it  had  within* 
its  borders  a great  number  of  outlaws — ruffians,  gamblers,  high- 
way robbers,  murderers,  horse-thieves  and  brigands.  Human 
life  was  not  safe,  and  crime  was  rife.  Every  man  went  armed, 
and  the  “ soft  notes  of  the  pistol  ” were  heard  everywhere  day 
and  night ; while  a man  was  made  an  offender  for  a word,  and 
was  often  shot  down  in  sheer  wantonness.  The  natural  conse- 


POPULATION  OF  ARKANSAS. 


1^7 


quence  of  this  state  of  things  was  that  the  better  disposed  part 
of  the  community  were  compelled  to  take  the  law  into  their  own 
hands.  Vigilance  committees  were  appointed,  and  when  the 
outlaws  found  their  occupation  gone,  they  retaliated  by  banding 
themselves  together  as  “ Regulators  ” and  raiding  the  settlements. 
For  some  years  a desperate  warfare  was  waged  between  these 
outlaws  and  the  rest  of  the  community,  and  the  services  of  Judge 
Lynch  were  often  called  for. 

At  length  law  and  order  triumphed ; the  outlaws  were  driven 
out,  and  peace  and  quiet  were  established.  It  was  time.  Busi- 
ness was  paralyzed  ; and  ignorance  and  brutishness  prevailed. 
In  this  partial  restoration  to  order,  some  attention  was  paid  to 
education,  and  from  1850  to  i860  there  was  a rapid  growth,  the 
population  doubling,  and  a decided  advance  being  made  in  the 
social  condition  of  the  people.  The  number  of  slaves  was  very 
large,  and  some  of  the  worst  evils  of  slavery  were  rife  there. 
With  the  commencement  of  the  war,  the  old  outlaw  spirit  revived, 
and  for  some  years  there  was  anarchy  again.  But  the  friends 
of  law  and  order  were,  after  a time,  in  a majority,  and  they  have 
succeeded  in  putting  down  ruffianism  completely.  The  era  of 
railroads  was  late  in  opening  in  Arkansas,  but  it  helped  materially 
in  producing  order,  enterprise  and  development  in  the  State. 


CHAPTER  III. 

CALIFORNIA. 

California  is  one  of  the  largest  States  of  “Our  Western 
Empire,”  and  stretches  for  700  miles  along  the  Pacific  coast.  It 
is  between  the  parallels  of  32°  28'  and  42°  north  latitude,  and 
between  the  meridians  of  114°  30'  and  124°  45' of  west  longitude 
from  Greenwich.  It  formed  a part  of  the  territory  ceded  by 
Mexico  to  the  United  States  at  the  close  of  the  Mexican  war, 
and  is  bounded  north  by  Oregon,  east  by  Nevada  and  Arizona,, 
south  by  Lower  California,  and  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The 
Pacific  coast  of  California  trends  southward  from  the  Oregon  line' 


i58 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


to  Cape  Mendocino  in  latitude  40°,  and  thence  in  a nearly  south- 
easterly direction  to  the  coast  of  Lower  California.  The  area 
of  the  State  is  188,981  square  miles,  or  1 20,947,840  acres,  or 
about  the  combined  areas  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio  and  Michigan.  Its  length  is  700  statute  miles,  and 
its  average  breadth  more  than  200  miles. 

Topography. — The  mountain  systems  of  California  are  vast 
in  extent,  diversified  in  character,  rich  in  mineral  wealth,  and 
unsurpassed  in  beauty  and  grandeur  of  scenery.  They  may  be 
considered  under  two  great  divisions:  the  Sierra  Nevada  or 
Snowy  Mountains,  on  the  eastern  border,  stretching  with  its 
spurs  over  a breadth  of  about  seventy  miles  in  a series  of 
ranges ; and  the  Coast  Range,  which,  in  its  several  chains,  in- 
cludes about  forty  miles  in  breadth,  extends  near  the  coast  the 
whole  length  of  the  State  and  into  Lower  California.  These 
two  ranges  unite  near  Fort  Tejon  in  latitude  35"^  and  again  in 
latitude  40°  35',  and  separating  again  form  the  extensive  and 
fertile  valleys  of  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento.  The  two 
lines  of  ranges  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  may  be  traced  in  regular 
order  for  a distance  of  nearly  seven  degrees  by  their  two  lines 
of  culminating  crests,  which  rise  in  varying  heights  from  10,000 
to  1 5,000  feet  above  the  sea.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  as 
much  order  in  the  position  and  direction  of  the  summits  of  the 
Coast  Range,  peaks  of  widely  varying  heights  and  entirely 
different  mineral  constitution  being  found  in  close  proximity. 
The  summits  of  the  Coast  Range  vary  in  altitude  from  1,500  to 
8,000  feet.  The  highest  peaks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  are  Mount 
Shasta,  Lassens  Butte,  Spanish  Peak,  Pyramid  Peak,  Mounts 
Dana,  Lyell,  Brewer,  Tyndal,  Whitney,  and  several  others  of 
less  note.  Those  of  the  Coast  Range,  though  richer  in  minerals, 
are  less  lofty  and  less  noted. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  crest  line  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  are 
a chain  of  lakes,  including  the  Klamath  lakes.  Pyramid,  Mono 
and  Owen  lakes,  lying  wholly  east  of  the  range,  and  Lake  Tahoe, 
a gem  of  the  purest  crystal  water,  far  up  in  the  mountains, 
occupying  a depression  between  two  summits.  The  depression, 
in  which  most  of  these  lakes  are  situated,  continues  southward 


rorOGRAPIIY  OF  CALIFORNIA.  j5g 

to  the  entrance  of  the  Gila  river  into  the  Colorado.  For  a con- 
siderable distance  northward  from  the  southern  limit  of  the  State 
it  is  many  feet  below  the  ocean  level,  and  geological  investiga- 
tions show  that  it  was  once  the  bed  of  a large  lake  or  estuary 
communicating  with  the  ocean  by  a somewhat  narrow  strait.  It 
has  recently  been  proposed  to  reopen  this  strait  as  a ship  canal, 
which  could  be  done  at  a very  moderate  expense,  and  thus  re- 
store this  ancient  land-locked  sea,  to  modify  the  climate,  and 
remove  the  drought  from  a region  once  populous,  but  now  exces- 
sively arid. 

A similar  depression,  though  not  quite  so  extensive,  exists  on 
the  western  slope  of  these  mountains  for  a width  of  about  fifty 
miles,  and  contains  several  lakes. 

The  region  lying  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  is  called  the  east- 
ern slope ; that  between  the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierras  and  the 
Coast  Range  is  known  as  the  California  Valley,  and  that  west 
of  the  Coast  Range  is  called  the  Coast  Valley,  or  simply  the 
Coast.  Another  geographical  division  is  made  by  drawing  an 
east  and  west  line  across  the  State  in  the  latitude  of  Fort  Tejon, 
that  part  of  the  State  lying  south  of  this  line  being  called  South- 
ern California.  The  country  between  this  line  and  one  extend- 
ing east  and  west  through  Trinity,  Humboldt,  Tehama  and 
Plumas  counties  is  called  Central  California ; all  north  of  this 
is  known  as  Northern  California.  Central  California  contains 
about  three-fourths  of  the  known  wealth  and  population  of  the 
State. 

The  Monte  Diablo  division  of  the  Coast  Range,  about  1 50 
miles  long  by  50  miles  wide,  is  a striking  landmark  of  the  State 
when  approached  by  sea,  and  from  its  summit  may  be  obtained 
the  finest  views  of  the  varied  scenery  and  landscapes  of  Cali- 
fornia which  can  be  found  anywhere. 

The  valleys  of  the  Sacramento  and  the  St.  Joaquin,  though 
the  largest,  are  by  no  means  the  only  valleys  of  California. 
There  are  hundreds  of  them  of  greater  or  less  extent,  and  many 
of  them  remarkable  for  fertility  and  beauty.  East  of  the  Sierras, 
in  Southern  California,  some  of  these  valleys,  the  deepest  por- 
tions of  a former  extensive  inland  sea,  are  now  salt  lakes  and 


|6o  OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

are  surrounded  by  most  forbidding  and  unpleasant  scenery.  In 
Mono,  Fresno  and  Kern,  Inyo  and  San  Bernardino  counties 
there  are  several  of  these  salt  lakes,  and  in  the  last-named 
county,  among  the  other  evidences  of  volcanic  action,  is  that 
combination  of  horrors  known  as  the  sink  of  the  Amargoza 
river  or  “Death  Valley.”  It  is  150  feet  and  probably  more 
below  the  level  of  the  sea,  intensely  hot,  dry,  and  sulphurous. 

California  is,  for  the  most  part,  well  watered,  but  the  Coast 
Range  limits  the  length  of  its  navigable  rivers  except  in  two  or 
three  instances.  The  Rio  Salinas  is  the  only  navigable  river  on 
the  coast  which  discharges  directly  into  the  Pacific  below  Cape 
Mendocino,  but  the  Sacramento  river  from  the  north  and  the 
San  Joaquin  from  the  south,  large  and  navigable  rivers,  both 
discharge  into  the  beautiful  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  The  Klamath 
river  at  the  north,  rising  in  the  Klamath  lake,  flows  through  a 
crooked  valley  to  the  ocean,  but  is  not  navigable  for  any  con- 
siderable distance.  This  is  also  true  of  the  other  rivers  north 
of  the  Golden  Gate.  Most  of  the  rivers  east  of  the  Sierras,  in 
the  long,  depressed  basin  already  described,  discharge  into  lakes 
in  the  basin,  and  have  no  connection,  direct  or  indirect,  with  the 
ocean. 

The  harbor  of  San  Francisco  is  the  finest  on  the  whole  Tacific 
coast,  fifty  miles  in  length  by  nine  in  width,  landlocked  and  ap- 
proached by  the  Golden  Gate,  five  miles  in  length  with  a width 
of  one  mile,  and  having  nowhere  less  than  thirty  feet  of  water. 
That  of  San  Diego,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  State,  is 
next  in  importance,  and,  with  its  railway  connections  soon  to  be 
completed,  will  prove  a formidable  rival  to  that  of  San  Francisco. 
The  other  harbors,  ten  or  twelve  in  number,  are  either  shallow 
or  not  well  protected  from  violent  winds,  and  need  breakwaters 
or  other  improvements.  There  are  many  islands  along  the 
coast,  some  of  them  small  and  rocky,  like  the  Farallones  off  the 
Golden  Gate,  and  inhabited  only  by  seals,  sea-lions,  and  aquatic 
birds  ; others  are  large  and  adapted  to  grazing  or  cultivation. 

The  amount  of  arable  lands  in  California,  including  those 
which  only  require  irrigation  to  make  them  productive,  and  are 
so  situated  that  they  can  be  irrigated,  and  the  swamp  or  tule 


CHINATOWN,  SAN  FBANGISCO  BAY  AND  HARBOR.  CHINESE  FISHERMAN. 


GEOLOGY  A ND  MINE  E A LOGY.  ' l i 

lands  which,  when  reclaimed  and  protected  from  overflow,  yield 
the  largest  crops  in  the  world,  is  estimated  at  not  less  than 
60,000,000  acres,  or  about  one-half  the  area  of  the  State  ; the 
grazing  lands  on  the  mountain  slopes  and  on -the  sides  of  the 
valleys  are  estimated  at  40,000,000  acres  more,  and  the  forest 
areas,  much  of  them  too  steep  for  cultivation,  were  officially 
stated  at  9,604,607  acres  in  1872,  but  have  been  considerably 
diminished  since  that  time.  There  are  then  somewhat  more 
than  10,000,000  acres  which,  from  one  cause  or  other — some 
being-  under  water,  some  volcanic  and  barren,  or  arid  and  not 
irrigable,  or  bald  and  bare  mountain  peaks — are  worthless. 
This  is,  however,  but  one-twelfth  of  the  area  of  the  State. 

Geology  ojid  Mineralogy . — The  Coast  Range  and  its  foot-hills 
generally  belong  to  the  tertiary  system,  but  at  San  Pedro  bay 
(about  latitude  34°)  the  cretaceous  rocks  come  to  the  coast,  to 
be  replaced  at  the  mouth  of  the  Margarita  river  (about  33°  10') 
by  quaternary  or  recent  alluvial  deposits  which  extend  to  the 
southern  line  of  the  State.  . It  is  these  alluvial  deposits  which 
General  Fremont  believes  have  filled  up  the  ancient  strait  or 
estuary  which  led  to  the  now  dry  and  desert  site  of  the  inland 
sea,  which  formerly  occupied  a large  part  of  Southeastern  Cali- 
fornia, and  which  he  urges  our  government  to  re-open  and  thus 
render  an  extensive  portion  of  Western  Arizona  and  South- 
eastern California  again  habitable. 

At  two  points  of  the  Coast  Range,  viz.:  at  the  Monte  Diablo 
mines,  in  Contra  Costa  county,  nearly  east  of  San  Francisco,  and 
in  Mendocino  county  (about  latitude  39°  30'),  the  tertiary  coal 
or  lignite  crops  out  in  extensive  beds.  The  first  of  these  has 
been  worked  for  many  years,  and  produces  a fair  burning  coal, 
of  which  about  1 50,000  tons  are  annually  sent  to  market. 

The  valleys  lying  between  the  Coast  Range  and  the  Sierras 
belong  mostly  to  the  cretaceous  formation,  though  in  the  extreme 
south  they  are  overlaid  by  alluvial  sands.  There  is  very  little 
gold  in  these  valleys  except  in  placers  which  have  been  washed 
down  from  the  mountains,  though  occasionally  pockets,  and  pos- 
sibly true  veins,  have  been  found  in  metamorphic  rocks  belong- 
ing as  high  up  in  the  series  as  the  cretaceous.  This  may  be 
due  to  volcanic  action  in  ages  long  past. 


i62 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


The  greater  part  of  the  auriferous  and  argentiferous  rocks  of 
the  State  belongs  to  the  triassic  and  Jurassic  strata,  which  form 
the  surface  rocks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  from  the  Columbia  river 
nearly  to  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  California.  It  is  in  these 
triassic  and  Jurassic  strata  that  most  of  the  gold  and  silver 
deposits  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific  occur.  South 
and  west  of  the  sierras,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  upper  waters 
of  Kern  river  and  its  tributaries,  is  an  extensive  volcanic  region, 
where  basaltic  and  porphyritic  rocks,  sulphurous  and  chalybeate  - 
springs,  deposits  of  sulphur  and  large  tracts  of  lava  and  lava 
ashes  are  found.  A somewhat  similar  though  much  smaller 
tract  exists  in  Sonoma  county,  between  two  spurs  of  the  Coast 
Range.  There  are  geysers  here,  and  other  indications  of  former 
volcanic  action.  Much  of  the  region  east  of  the  sierras  is  of 
recent  formations,  though  modified  by  former  volcanic  action,  and 
is  forbidding  to  the  last  degree.  The  lakes  or  sinks,  often 
very  deep,  are  always  salt  and  bitter,  and  often  without  water 
most  of  the  year.  The  beds  of  the  lakes  are  covered  with 
alkaline  deposits.  The  famous  Death  Valley,  the  Dry  Lakes,  of 
which  there  are  at  least  a dozen.  Dry  Salt  Lake,  Owen’s  Lake 
and  other  sinks  of  this  region  give  striking  evidence  of  its  former 
volcanic  character,  and  of  the  great  changes  which  have  taken 
place,  some  of  them  within  modern  times  in  this  part  of  the 
State.  The  earthquakes  of  1871  were  most  violent  in  this 
section,  especially  in  Kern,  Inyo,  and  San  Bernardino  counties. 

Mineralogy.- — Gold  is  found  pure,  in  scales,  fine  dust,  in 
nuggets  and  in  crystals,  and  in  combination  with  copper,  silver, 
lead,  zinc,  cinnabar,  arsenic,  iron,  sulphur,  tellurium,  iridosmine, 
etc.  Silver  is  found  native,  though  very  rarely,  as  a chloride 
(horn-silver),  in  combination  with  lead  as  argentiferous  galena, 
sulphurets  and  carbonates  of  silver  and  lead,  with  copper  as 
copper  glance,  red  silver  ore,  etc.,  and  with  several  of  the  rarer 
metals  as  well  as  with  sulphur,  iron,  etc.  Copper  exists  in  the 
form  of  native  copper,  and  as  malachite,  copper  glance,  rubescite, 
azurite,  chalcopyrite  and  chrysocolla,  in  combination  with  sulphur, 
etc.  Mercury  or  quicksilver  appears  as  cinnabar  very  abun- 
dantly throughout  the  Coast  Range,  as  coccinite  in  Santa  Barbara, 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALOGY. 


163 

and  native  in  the  Pioneer  claim  and  elsewhere.  There  are  now 
about  sixty  mines  of  quicksilver  in  the  State,  and  the  supply 
increases  with  the  ever  increasing  demand. 

Platinum  has  only  been  found  in  California  in  placers,  though 
its  occurrence  in  veins  with  gold  or  silver  is  not  improbable. 
Tin  is  found  as  cassiterite  or  binoxide  of  tin  in  the  Temiscal 
range  about  sixty  miles  from  Los  Angeles,  and  in  grains  else- 
where. Lead  is  abundant  as  galena  all  over  the  State,  and  in 
many  cases  carries  a considerable  percentage  of  silver.  The 
molybdate  of  lead  (Wulfenite)  occurs  in  one  or  two  localities. 
Arsenic  occurs  pure  in  Monterey  county,  and  as  v.arsenilite  in 
one  or  two  counties,  and  is  extracted  as  white  oxide  in  smelting 
several  ores.  Iron  exists  in  various  forms,  as  chromic  iron,  as 
haematite,  as  magnetic  and  specular  ores,  and  as  oxide  or  bog 
iron  ore  in  several  localities.  Tellurium  occurs  native  and  in 
combination  with  gold  and  silver  and  copper,  and  forms  one  of 
the  most  refractory  of  ores.  Diamonds  (so  called)  are  found  ir^ 
several  localities,  but  are  not  probably  the  genuine  article,  though 
they  possess  many  of  the  properties  of  the  diamond.  Graphite 
occurs  in  Tuolumne  county  and  elsewhere  ; borax  and  boracic 
acid  in  one  or  more  lakes  and  in  the  marshes  adjacent ; salt  as 
rock-salt,  as  brine,  and  evaporated  from  the  sea  water  and  from 
the  numerous  salt  lakes ; soda,  both  as  caustic  soda  in  deposits 
of  a hundred  feet  or  more  in  thickness  and  of  great  extent,  and 
as  carbonate  of  soda  around  some  of  the  alkaline  lakes,  and  in 
the  volcanic  valleys ; sulphur,  pure,  and  in  sulphurets  and 
sulphates  ; gypsum,  barytes,  antimony,  ochre,  alabaster,  fluorspar, 
corundum,  and  cobalt  in  the  form  of  erythrine,  abound  in  various 
parts  of  the  State.  Magnesite,  iridosmine,  magnetite,  limonite, 
tourmaline,  pyrolusite  (binoxide  of  manganese),  zircon,  garnets, 
chrysolite  and  haysine  are  the  other  principal  minerals.  Coal, 
as  already  stated,  occurs  in  several  localities.  Petroleum  and 
bitumen  are  found  in  several  of  the  coast  counties,  and  the 
former,  after  many  mishaps  and  failures,  has  become  one  of  the 
standard  products  of  the  State,  and  is  now  supplying  a con- 
siderable part  of  the  local  demand. 

Mines  and  Mining. — California  is  one  of  the  great  mining 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


164 

States.  Her  production  of  the  precious  metals  has  been  larger 
than  that  of  any  other  State  or  Territory,  though  Nevada  has 
* approached  it,  and  amid  all  changes,  and  with  the  exhaustion  of 
the  ordinary  placer-mining,  the  State  has  still  maintained  a very 
large  yield,  and  is  likely  to  increase  rather  than  diminish  it 
Gold  or  silver  or  both  have  been  discovered  in  paying  quantities 
in  eighteen  counties  of  the  State  and  possibly  more.  Of  these 
counties  all  (except  Humboldt,  Klamath  and  Del  Norte,  which 
have  deposits  only  in  the  shore  and  beach  sands,  being  all  coast 
counties,  and  Los  Angeles,  in  which  silver  mines  have  recently 
been  discovered)  are  situated  along  the  eastern  or  western  slopes 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada;  some  of  them  extending  also  across  the 
valley  to  the  eastern  foot-hills  of  the  Coast  Range.  These 
counties,  with  the  character  of  their  product  and  the  processes 
used  in  obtaininor  it,  are  as  follows,  bec^inninof  with  the  southern- 
most:  I.  Inyo — silver  mines  in  veins  or  lodes,  mostly  in  Owen’s 
valley  and  on  the  western  slope  of  the  In\'o  or  Buena  Vista 
Ivlountains,  one  of  the  parallel  ranges  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
from  twelve  to  thirty  miles  southeast  of  the  head  of  Owen’s  Lake. 
There  are  700  or  800  claims  here,  and  many  of  them  are  worked 
successfully. 

2.  Mariposa  county,  lying  on  the  western  slope  of  the  main 
range  of  the  Sierras,  and  having  the  famous  valley  of  the 
Yosemite  within  its  borders.  The  mines  are  mostly  in  the  west 
andi  southwest  part  of  the  county,  and  the  greater  part  of  them, 
on  the  Mariposa  estate,  were  once  the  property  of  General 
Fremont.  Besides  these  there  are  the  Oaks  and  Reese  mines, 
which  are  largely  productive.  These  are  gold  only,  and  in  quartz 
veins. 

3.  Tuohunne  county,  lying  immediately  north  of  Mariposa  on 
the  western  slope  and  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra.  The  mines,  mostly 
o-old,  thoupfh  there  are  a few  silver,  and  all  in  veins  or  lodes,  are 
in  the  west  and  southwest  portion  of  the  county.  There  are 
somewhat  more  than  fifty  mines. 

4.  Calaveras  county,  situated  northwest  of  Tuolumne,  but  on 
the  same  range.  The  mines  are  scattered  throughout  the 
county.  There  are  many  gold  mines  in  quartz  veins,  and  exten- 
sive placers  (of  gold),  but  they  are  very  nearly  exhausted. 


MINING  IN  THE  COUNTIES. 


i65 


5.  Amador  county,  immediately  north  of  Calaveras,  a small 
county,  but  rich  in  gold  deposits.  It  has  twelve  or  fifteen  mines, 
mostly  in  the  western  part  of  the  county,  gold  in  quartz  veins, 
and  yielding  well. 

6.  Eldorado  cotinty,  the  county  in  which  gold  was  first  discov- 
ered. This  county  is  partly  in  the  Sacramento  valley,  and  is 
drained  by  one  of  the  afifiuents  of  the  Sacramento  river.  The 
mines  (gold  in  quartz  veins),  which  have  always  been  produc- 
tive, though  the  placers  have  long  since  given  out,  are  situated 
mostly  in  the  western  part  of  the  county.  There  are  a dozen  or 
more  large  stamp  mills  and  a greater  number  of  mines. 

7.  Placer  county,  north  and  northwest  of  Eldorado.  Lake 
Tahoe  is  mostly  in  this  county,  and  the  Central  Pacific  Railway 
traverses  the  entire  length  of  the  county  from  southwest  to 
northeast.  There  are  many  placers  and  large  deposits  in  the 
former  beds  of  what  are  known  as  “ dead  rivers,”  which  are 
being  worked  by  the  process  of  hydraulic  mining.  There  are 
also  some  quartz  veins  which  yield  liberally.  The  product  is 
gold  exclusively.  There  are  about  forty  mines  and  placers  now 
worked. 

8.  Nevada  county,  north  of  Placer  county,  is  probably  the  richest 
of  all  the  counties  of  California  in  mineral  wealth.  Its  gold  mines 
and  placers,  many  of  them  very  rich,  are  scattered  all  over  the 
county.  Its  placer  gold  is  nearer  to  absolute  purity  than  that 
of  any  other  mines  or  placers  in  the  State.  Of  the  1 30  placers 
recorded,  the  gold  product  in  most  ranged  from  900  to  976 
(absolutely  pure  gold  being  1,000),  and  the  “You  Bet”  claim 
gold  assayed  994.  The  gold  from  the  thirty-seven  quartz  veins 
of  the  county  did  not  assay  quite  so  high,  but  ranged  from  798 
to  875. 

9.  Sierra  comity,  north  of  Nevada  county,  is  noted  for  its 
hydraulic  mining.  Through  this  county,  on  a ridge  one  or  two 
hundred  feet  above  the  adjacent  lands,  is  the  ancient  bed  of  a 
river,  which  the  miners  know  as  the  Big  Blue  Lead,  whose  sands, 
for  a depth  of  five  or  six  feet  or  more,  and  for  a distance  of 
probably  a hundred  and  ten  miles,  were  rich  with  gold.  It  had 
been  upheaved  in  the  volcanic  changes  through  which  the  Sierras 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


I 66 

have  passed,  and  wherever  living  streams  cross  its  ancient  bed 
with  their  deep  canons,  they  wash  down  rich  masses  of  gold  dust. 
The  miners  have  been  breaking  down  the  blue  gravel  of  this 
“ dead  river  ” bed  by  tunnels,  blasting,  and  the  hydraulic  pro- 
cess, for  the  past  twelve  or  thirteen  years,  and  have  reaped  a 
rich  harvest.  In  this  county  was  found,  in  August,  1869,  a nugget 
of  gold  weighing  95^  pounds,  worth  ^21,156.52. 

10.  Yuba  county,  southwest  of  Sierra,  is  also  a famous  county 
for  hydraulic  mining,  having  five  or  six  large  deposits  of  gold. 

1 1.  BtUte  coimty,  west  of  Yuba,  has  many  quartz  veins  rich  in 
gold.  Seven  or  eight  large  mines  are  worked. 

12.  Plumas  county,  north  of  Sierra,  has  in  the  eastern  and  cen- 
tral  portions  of  the  county  fifteen  or  twenty  gold  mines,  some  of 
them  hydraulic,  others  quartz  mines. 

13.  Alpine  coimty,  situated  on  the  extreme  eastern  border  of 
the  State,  on  the  crest  of  the  Sierras,  between  latitude  38°  20'  and, 
38°  50'.  The  ores  here  are  sulphurets  and  antimonial  sulphurets  ; 
in  all  of  them  silver  predominates,  in  some  with  a liberal  per- 
centage of  gold,  in  others  with  considerable  copper.  The  claims, 
which  are  very  numerous,  are  all  of  them  worked  by  opening 
adits  or  tunnels.  This  requires  more  capital  at  first,  but  is 
necessary  in  so  mountainous  a region.  The  mines,  so  far  as 
developed,  yield  very  well, — from  $40  to  J75  per  ton  of  ore, — 
though  there  are  difficulties  in  the  reduction. 

14.  Shasta  coitnty,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  the  forty- 
first  parallel  passing  through  it,  has  deposits  and  quartz  veins  of 
gold  and  copper.  The  gold  mines  yield  either  free-milling  gold 
or  gold  combined  with  sulphurets  of  copper,  lead  or  zinc.  The 
mines,  eight  or  ten  in  number,  which  are  worked,  are  in  the 
western  part  of  the  county. 

15.  It  has  generally  been  supposed  that  the  western  slope  of 
the  Coast  Range  was  barren  of  ores  of  the  precious  metals,  but 
recent  developments  show  that  the  silver-bearing  ledges  are 
found  there  as  well  as  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  same  range, 
or  on  both  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  Los  Angeles  county, 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  State,  on  the  coast,  has  hitherto  been 
regarded  as  the  finest  agricultural  county  in  the  State,  but 


TERRA  CE- MINING. . 


167 


recently  there  have  been  discovered  extensive  veins  of  silver 
there,  and  numerous  mines  are  clustering  around  Silverado  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  county.  The  ore  is  argentiferous 
galena  (sulphurets  of  silver  and  lead),  and  the  assays  range  from 
$iS  to  $200  per  ton. 

The  beach  deposits  of  Del  Norte,  Klamath  and  Humboldt 
counties  of  gold  in  iron  sands  are  not  simply  those  found  in  the 
sands  washed  by  the  tides,  and  which  are  common  to  all  coasts 
which  have  rivers  discharging  into  a sea  or  ocean  from  gold- 
bearing  mountains  ; these  sands,  though  extending  ten  miles  out 
from  the  coast,  contain  gold  in  such  small  quantities,  as  hardly 
to  repay  the  labor  of  collection  ; but  they  occur  in  terraces  or  old 
beaches  and  bluffs,  sometimes  two  or  three  miles  back  from  high- 
water  mark,  and  from  250  to  1,200  feet  above  the  sea.  In  thes  ? 
bluffs  or  terraced  beaches  are  extensive  layers  of  iron  sand,  rich 
in  gold,  and  varying  in  thickness  from  a few  inches  to  three  c»r 
four  feet.  The  miners  call  this  terrace-mining.  Several  of  these 
strata  have  been  discovered,  one  at  five  miles  below  Trinidad,  in 
Klamath  county,  one  at  Crescent  City,  in  Del  Norte  county,  one 
in  Humboldt  county,  and  one  at  Randolph,  Curry  county, 
Oregon.  These  terraces  indicate  either  an  upheaval  of  the 
coast  or  a retro^radinof  of  the  ocean. 

The  falling  off  in  the  production  of  silver  in  the  Comstock 
lodes  of  Nevada  has  produced  a reaction  in  favor  of  the  gold 
placer  and  quartz  mines  of  California,  and  there  is  at  the  present 
time  a considerably  greater  activity  in  gold  mining  in  Cali- 
fornia, than  at  any  time  for  the  last  fifteen  years.  All  the  gold 
mines  in  the  counties  named  above  have  been  reopened,  and  are 
now  actively  worked  with  a greatly  increased  production  ; more 
than  a hundred  new  quartz  mills  have  been  erected  within  the 
past  year  and  a half,  and  are  now  actively  at  work,  and  many 
new  mines  and  placers  have  been  opened  and  developed  in  the 
counties  which  have  previously  yielded  gold,  while  Trinity, 
Klamath,  Fresno,  San  Bernardino,  and  Mendocino  counties  are 
added  to  the  list  of  mining  counties.  It  is  confidently  predicted 
that  the  gold  yield  of  California,  now  on,  will  be  much  greater 
than  in  any  year  since  1866. 

36 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


I 68 

Soils  and  Vegetation. — “ In  a region  of  such  vast  extent,”  says 
Professor  E.  Wh  Hilgard,  “ traversed  by  mountain  ranges  formed 
of  rocks  of  all  kinds  and  ages,  there  is,  of  course,  an  endless 
variety  of  soils,  to  describe  all  of  which  would  exceed  our  limits, 
even  if  the  data  were  available.  Unfortunately  this  is  far  from 
being  the  case,  the  geological  survey”  (of  which  Professor  Hil- 
gard was  the  chief)  “having  paid  but  little  attention  to  the  ex- 
amination of  soils,  which,  it  is  true,  is  a subject  requiring  special 
qualifications  and  care  on  the  part  of  the  observer  to  insure  use- 
ful results.  There  are,  however,  some  general  features  devel- 
oped on  a large  scale  in  the  more  thickly  settled  parts  of  the 
State,  a brief  summary  of  which  may  find  an  appropriate  place 
here.” 

“It  is  well  known  that  the  main  axis  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  is 
formed  by  granitic  rocks,  which  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
range,  as  well  as  on  the  slopes,  are  usually  overlaid  by  clay 
slates  and  shales,  forming  the  proverbial  ‘ bed-rock  ’ of  the  gold- 
placers  and  gravel-beds.  The  soil  derived  either  directly  from 
the  granites  or  from  the  older  portion  of  the  slater — in  other 
words,  the  gold-bearing  soil  of  the  Sierra  slope — is  an  orange- 
colored  (commonly  called  ‘ red  ’)  loam,  more  or  less  clayey  or 
sandy  according  to  location,  and  greatly  resembles,  on  the  whole, 
the  older  portion  of  the  ‘yellow  loam’  subsoil  of  the  Gulf  States. 
Of  course  it  contains  much  more  of  coarse  materials  in  the  shape 
of  undecomposed  rock,  and  its  sand-grains  are  sharp  instead  of 
rounded.  It  is  the  predominant  soil  of  ‘ the  foot-hills,’  and 
where  ridges  extend  from  these  out  into  the  Great  Valley,  they 
are  usually  characterized  by  the  red  tint,  which  gradually  fades 
out  as  the  ridges  flatten  into  swales  in  their  approach  to  the  San 
Joaquin  and  Sacramento  rivers,  being  lost  in  the  gray  or  black 
of  the  ‘ adobe,’  or  the  buff  of  the  river-sediment  soils.  Its  admix- 
ture is  everywhere,  I believe,  found  to  be  advantageous  to  the 
other  soils ; and  in  the  foot-hills  themselves  it  proves  to  be 
highly  productive,  as  well  as  durable,  easy  of  tillage,  and  what 
is  termed  a ‘ warm  ’ soil.  The  rocks  of  the  lower  slope  of  the 
Sierra,  but  more  especially  those  of  the  Coast  Range  opposite, 
are  predominantly  of  a very  clayey  character,  soft  gray  clay 


THE  SOIL  OF  THE  VALLEYS.  l5c)_ 

shales  and  laminated  clays  alternating  with  ledges  of  soft  clay 
sandstone  and  brittle  hornstone.  Their  mechanical  and  chemi- 
cal decomposition  results,  therefore,  in  the  formation  of  gray, 
buff,  or  sometimes  almost  white  clay  soils,  which  occupy  the  hilb 
sides  and  higher  portions  of  the  valleys,  while  in  the  lower  por- 
tions the  admixture  of  vegetable  matter,  especially  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a comparatively  large  amount  of  lime,  causes  them  to 
appear  dark,  and  often  coal-black.  These  soils  constitute  the 
‘ adobe,’  so  often  mentioned  in  connection  with  California  ao^ri- 
culture.  They  are  substantially  the  same,  both  as  to  tilling 
qualities  and  chemical  composition,  as  the  prairie  soils  of  the 
Western  and  Southern  States.  Like  these,  they  are  rich  in 
plant  food,  durable  and  strong,  yielding  the  highest  returns  of 
field  crops  in  favorable  seasons  and  under  good  culture,  but 
sensitive  to  extremes  of  wet  or  dry  seasons,  and  of  course  more 
in  cultivation,  as  well  as  more  liable  to  crop  failures,  than  lighter 
soils. 

“ During  the  dry  season  the  adobe  soil,  unless  it  has  been  very 
deeply  and  thoroughly  tilled,  becomes  conspicuous  by  the  wide 
and  deep  gaping  cracks  which  traverse  it  in  all  directions,  some- 
times to  a depth  of  several  feet,  precisely  as  in  the  ‘ hog- wallow 
prairies’ of  the  Southwestern  States.  Of  course  the  effect  of 
rains  is  here  also  similar  in  causing  a bulging  up  of  the  masses 
between  the  cracks  when  the  material  which  has  fallen  into  the 
latter  expands  forcibly  on  wetting.  Hence  the  ‘ hog-wallow  ’ 
surface  is  as  familiar  in  California  as  in  Texas ; and  the  fact  that 
a traveller  outside  of  the  Sierras  in  the  dry  season  is  rarely  out 
of  sight  of  some  such  land  is  eloquent  as  to  the  wide  prevalence 
of  the  ‘adobe.’  On  the  steep  hillsides  of  the  Coast  Range  the 
sun-cracks  aid  in  giving  foothold  to  stock  ; and  during  the  rainy 
season  the  water  running  into  them  to  the  bed-rock  causes 
numberless  land-slides,  such  as  gave  rise  to  the  memorable  case 
of  Hyde  vs.  Morgan.  As  it  is  well  ascertained  that  at  a former 
geological  period  the  entire  interior  valley,  as  well  as  the  Bay  of 
San  Francisco,  was  fresh-water  lake  basins,  the  bulk  of  the  adobe 
soil  would  seem  to  represent  ancient  lake,  or  rather,  perhaps, 
swamp  deposits,  which  are  therefore  found  in  corresponding 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


170 

positions  in  most  of  the  connecting  valleys.  On  the  bay  we  find 
usually  only  a narrow  strip  of  sandy  soil  running  along  the 
beach ; inland  of  this  a level  belt  of  black  adobe  (or  at  times  salt 
marsh),  from  which  there  is  a gradual  ascent  toward  the  foot  of 
the  Coast  Range,  the  soil  becoming  lighter  colored  and  mingled 
with  bowlders  and  rock  fragments.  The  nature  of  the  materials, 
as  well  as  the  form  of  portions  of  this  slope,  characterizes  them 
almost  inevitably  as  the  result  of  glacial  action. 

“The  peninsula  on  which  San  Francisco  is  situated  is  overrun 
with  the  dune  sand  drifted  from  the  ocean  beach  for  a distance 
of  several  miles  south  from  the  Golden  Gate,  so  that  the  fixing 
of  the  sand  and  its  conversion  into  soil  is  one  of  the  chief  prob- 
lems of  the  gardens  and  parks  of  that  city.  The  city  of  Oak- 
land, also,  is  situated  on  a somewhat  sandy,  but  nevertheless 
quite  productive,  soil ; and  land  of  a similar  character,  but 
stronger  by  admixture  of  the  adobe,  yet  easily  tilled,  forms  the 
soil  of  the  fertile  valleys  in  the  plain  lying  between  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  bay  and  the  Coast  Range,  which  are  largely  devoted 
to  market-gardens  and  fruit-culture,  and,  farther  from  the  cities, 
to  that  of  barley.  The  comparative  difficulty  and  more  or  less 
of  uncertainty  attendant  upon  the  cultivation  of  the  adobe  soils, 
unless  very  thoroughly  tilled,  has  caused  a preference  to  be  very 
commonly  given  to  the  lighter  soils  found  nearer  to  the  streams, 
which  are  formed  of  a mixture  of  the  adobe  with  the  river  sedi- 
ment, or,  nearest  the  water-courses,  of  that  sediment  alone.  It 
is  suggestive  of  the  character  of  the  majority  of  California 
streams  that  the  word  ‘ bottom,’  used  east  of  the  mountains  to 
designate  the  well-defined  flood-plain,  is  scarcely  heard  in  the 
State,  the  more  indefinite  and  general  term  ‘valley’  being  in 
general  use.  The  obvious  reason  is  that  there  is  in  most  cases 

o 

no  very  definite  terrace,  but  a rather  gradual  slope  from  the 
bank  to  the  bordering  hills.  The  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin 
have  not,  as  a rule,  raised  their  immediate  banks  perceptibly 
above  the  rest  of  the  flood-plain,  because  the  sediment  they 
carry  is  not  such  as  will  subside  at  the  slightest  diminution  of 
velocity,  but  is  apt  to  be  carried  some  distance  inland.  At  the 
points  of  its  upper  course  the  San  Joaquin,  and  in  the  lower 


THE  TULE  LANDS. 


171 

portions  both  it  and  the  Sacramento,  subdivide  into  numerous 
sloughs  traversing  wide  belts  of  more  or  less  marshy  flats,  sub- 
ject to  overflow,  and  covered  with  a rank  growth  of  ‘ tule.’ 
This  name  applies,  strictly  speaking,  to  the  round  rush  [Scirptis 
Lacustris),  which  occupies  predominantly  the  tide-water  marshes, 
here  as  well  as  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  farther  from  salt 
water,  however,  the  more  it  is  intermingled  with  (or  locally 
almost  replaced  by)  other  aquatic  grasses,  sedges,  and  cat-tail 
flag  {Typha),  affording,  together  with  the  young  ‘ tule,’  excellent 
pasture  nearly  throughout  the  year.  Here  as  elsewhere  in  such 
districts,  the  cattle  soon  acquire  the  art  of  keeping  themselves 
from  getting  bogged,  by  maintaining  a sort  of  paddling  motion 
when  on  peaty  ground,  while  draught-horses  require  to  be  pro- 
vided with  broad  ‘ tule-shoes.’  These  tule  lands,  embracine  a laree 
number  of  rich  and  partly  reclaimed  islands,  such  as  Union, 
Brannan,  Sherman,  and  others,  forming  part  of  the  counties  of 
Sacramento,  San  Joaquin,  and  Solano,  continue  with  varying 
width  along  the  east  shores  of  Suisun  and  San  Pablo  bays,  and 
up  the  tributary  valleys  of  Napa,  Sonoma,  and  Petaluma,  nearly 
to  the  limit  of  tide-water.  It  is  noteworthy  that,  as  regards 
salubrity,  the  tules,  at  least  so  far  as  they  are  within  reach  of 
brackish  tide-water,  are  less  liable  to  malarious  fevers  than  the 
upper  portions  of  the  great  valleys. 

“ The  soil  of  the  tule  lands  is  of  two  principal  kinds : sediment 
land,  found  chiefly  along  the  Sacramento  and  other  streams, 
'tarrying  much  ‘ slum  ’ from  the  hydraulic  mines  ; and  peaty  land, 
more  prevalent  along  the  San  Joaquin  and  its  branches.  The 
latter  kind  consists  almost  entirely  of  tule  roots,  in  various 
stages  of  freshness  and  decay,  to  a depth  of  from  two  to  twenty 
and  more  feet ; in  the  latter  case  we  have  the  ‘ float  land,’  which 
rests  on  the  water-table  and  rises  and  falls  more  or  less  with  it. 
Like  the  ‘Prairie  Tremblante,’  near  New  Orleans,  it  often  trem- 
bles under  the  tread  of  man,  but  will  nevertheless  sustain  herds 
of  cattle  without  the  least  danger,  its  bulges  forming  places  of 
refuge  for  them  in  time  of  high  water.  An  excellent  fuel  has 
been  made  by  pulping  this  mass  and  forming  it  into  bricks  like 
true  peat. 


172 


OUK  IVES7'EKX  EMPIRE. 


“ The  tule  lands  were  long  thought  to  be  worthless  except  for 
pasture  purposes  ; but  it  has  now  come  to  be  well  understood 
that  they  are  in  large  part  of  extraordinary  fertility,  and,  if  pro- 
tected from  overflow  by  levees,  are  almost  sure  to  yield  abundant 
crops  every  year,  even  in  seasons  when  those  of  the  uplands 
fail  for  want  of  moisture.  In  their  reclamation  the  construction 
of  levees  is  of  course  the  first  thing  needful.  The  sediment  land 
can  then  be  taken  into  cultivation  at  once  by  the  use  of  large 
sod- plows,  resembling  the  prairie  plows  of  the  Western  States. 
It  is  usual  to  burn  off  the  rushes  and  native  grasses  previous  to 
plowing,  especially  in  the  peaty  lands  where  the  plow  would 
otherwise  find  no  soil.  But  here  the  fire  penetrates  several  feet 
down,  either  to  the  underlying  soil  or  to  moisture,  leaving  behind 
a layer  of  ashes  so  light  that  the  plow  is  useless.  At  the  proper 
season  grain  is  then  sown  upon  the  ashes,  and  either  brushed  in 
or  trodden  in  by  sheep,  and  extraordinary  grain-crops  are  thus 
produced  during  the  first  years,  the  duration  of  fertility  depend- 
ing, of  course,  upon  the  soil  underlying  after  the  ashes  have 
been  exhausted.  The  tule  lands  bordering  upon  Tulare  lake 
are  of  a different  character  from  those  of  the  lower  rivers.  The 
soil  is  heavy,  consisting  of  fine  sediments  mixed  with  gray  clay 
and  shell  debris,  contains  a large  supply  of  plant  food,  and  with 
proper  cultivation  will  doubtless  prove  as  highly  productive  as 
are  the  soils  of  the  Great  Tulare  plains  themselves. 

“ The  soils  of  the  Mojave  desert  seem  on  the  whole  to  be 
rather  light,  whitish  silts,  of  whose  possible  productiveness  little 
can  as  yet  be  said,  except  that  without  irrigation  culture  is  hope- 
less. In  striking  contrast  with  these  close  soils  of  the  San 
Joaquin  valley  are  those  which  prevail  south  of  the  Sierras,  San 
Fernando,  and  San  Gabriel,  in  the  Los  Angeles  plain  and  its 
tributary  valleys,  the  home  of  the  orange,  lemon,  and  olive  in 
their  perfection.  The  fine  rolling  uplands  (‘  mesas  ’)  of  that 
region  are  generally  covered  with  a brownish,  gravelly  loam, 
from  eight  to  twenty  feet  in  thickness,  which,  with  tillage,  assumes 
the  most  perfect  tilth  with  ease.  It  is  a generous,  ‘strong’  soil, 
varying  locally  so  as  to  adapt  itself  to  every  variety  of  crop,  yet 
readily  identifiable  by  its  general  character  from  Los  Angeles  to 


ALKALI  SOIL. 


173 


San  Diego.  In  most  respects  it  may  be  considered  a variety  of 
the  red  soils  of  the  Sierra  slope  already  described,  like  which  it 
appears  to  be  pre-eminently  adapted  to  fruit  culture. 

“ The  soils  of  the  plain  to  seaward  of  Los  Angeles,  and  of  the 
coast  plains  south  of  Santa  Barbara  generally,  so  far  as  not 
modified  by  the  sediments  of  the  streams,  seem  to  be  uniformly 
characterized  by  a very  large  amount  of  glistening  mica  scales, 
distributed  in  a rather  sandy,  dark-colored  mass,  destitute  of 
coarse  materials.  They  are  easily  cultivated  and  highly  pro- 
ductive when  irrigated,  although  not  unfrequently  afflicted  with 
a certain  taint  of  ‘ alkali.’  This,  however,  when  not  too  strong 
or  salt,  is  here  readily  neutralized  by  the  use  of  gypsum. 

“ ‘Alkali  ’ soil  is  the  name  used  in  California  to  designate  any 
soil  containing  such  unusual  quantities  of  soluble  salts  as  to  allow 
them  to  become  visible  on  the  surface  during  the  dry  season,  as 
a white  crust  or  efflorescence.  They  are  of  course  found  chiefly 
in  low,  level  regions,  such  as  the  Great  Valley,  and  the  plains  to 
seaward  of  the  Coast  Range  ; sometimes  in  continuous  tracts  of 
many  thousands  of  acres,  sometimes  in  spots  so  interspersed 
with  non-alkaline  land  as  to  render  it  impossible  to  till  one  kind 
without  the  other.  The  nature  and  amount  of  salts  in  these 
soils  is  of  course  very  variable.  Near  the  coast  the  ‘alkali’  is 
often  little  more  than  common  salt,  and  can  be  relieved  only  by 
drainage  or  appropriate  culture.  At  times  we  find  chiefly 
magnesian  salts,  when  liming  will  relieve  the  trouble.  But  in 
the  Great  Valley  the  name  ‘alkali’  is  in  most  cases  justified  by 
the  nature  of  the  salt,  which  almost  always  contains  more  or  less 
carbonate  of-  soda,  and  sometimes  potassa.  The  presence  of 
these  substances,  even  to  the  extent  of  a fourth  of  one  per  cent., 
while  it  may  do  but  little  harm  during  the  wet  season,  results  in 
their  accumulation  at  the  surface  whenever  the  rains  cease,  and 
the  corrosion  of  the  root-crown,  stunting,  and  final  death  of  the 
plants.  But  when  stronger,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  the  seed  is 
killed  during  germination.  Moreover,  land  so  afflicted  cannot 
be  brought  to  good  tilth  by  even  the  most  thorough  tillage. 
Fortunately,  a very  effectual  and  cheap  neutralizer  of  this,  the 
true  ‘alkali,’  is  available  in  the  form  of  gypsum,  which  transforms 


174 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


the  caustic  carbonates  into  innocent  sulphates.  Wherever  the 
amount  of  alkali  present  is  not  excessive,  the  use  of  gypsum 
relieves  all  difficulties  arising  from  the  presence  of  the  former. 
Moreover,  analysis  shows  that  in  many  cases  large  amounts  of 
important  mineral  plant-food,  such  as  potash,  phosphates,  and 
nitrates,  accompany  the  injurious  substances  ; so  that  when  the 
latter  are  neutralized,  the  previously  useless  soil  may  be  expected 
to  possess  extraordinary  and  lasting  fertility.  Abundant  deposits 
of  gypsum  have  been  shown  to  exist  in  many  portions  of  the 
State  since  attention  has  been  directed  to  its  importance  in  this 
connection. 

“ On  the  eastern  affluents  of  the  Sacramento  river,  the  Ameri- 
can, Bear,  Yuba,  Feather,  and  other  streams  heading  in  the 
region  where  hydraulic  mining  is  practised,  a new  kind  of  soil  is 
now  being  formed  out  of  the  materials  carried  down  from  the 
gold-bearing  gravels.  The  enormous  masses  of  detritus  washed 
into  the  streams,  filling  their  upper  valleys  to  the  height  of  sixty 
feet  and  more  with  boulders  and  gravel,  while  a muddy  flood  of 
the  finer  materials  overruns  the  valley  lands  in  their  lower  course, 
have  given  rise  to  a great  deal  of  complaint  on  the  part  of 
farmers;  and  the  ‘mining  debris  question’  has  been  the  subject 
of  numerous  lawsuits,  and  of  much  angry  debate  in  the  legislative 
halls.  In  some  cases  the  lands  so  overrun  are  definitively  ruined; 
in  others  the  new  soil  formed  Is  of  fair  quality  in  itself,  but  as  yet 
unthrifty;  in  many,  the  best  quality  of  black  adobe  is  covered 
many  feet  deep  with  an  unproductive  ‘slum.’  By  the  same 
agency,  the  beds  of  the  Sacramento  and  its  tributaries  have 
become  filled  to  such  an  extent  as  to  greatly  obstruct  navigation 
and  to  cause  much  more  frequent  overflows,  whose  deposit, 
however,  appears  to  Improve,  in  general,  the  heavy  lands  of  the 
plain,  as  well  as  the  tides.  It  Is  difficult  to  foresee  a solution 
of  this  question  that  would  be  satisfactory  to  all  parties  con- 
cerned ; the  more  as  the  navigation  of  the  bay  Itself  is  begin- 
ning to  suffer  from  the  accumulation  of  deposit,  the  reddish 
sediment-bearing  waters  of  the  Sacramento  being  always  distin- 
guishable in  front  of  the  city  from  the  blue  water  brought  in  by 
the  tides.” 


THE  MARIPOSA  GROVE  OF  SEQUOIAS.  I/S 

Much  of  the  soil  of  the  State,  especially  of  the  mountain  slopes, 
is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  growth  of  gigantic  forest  trees.  Of 
these  there  have  been  recognized  and  described  forty-eight 
genera  and  one  hundred  and  five  species  in  the  State,  the  greater 
part  of  which  are  not  only  indigenous  but  only  to  be  found  on 
the  Pacific  slope.  Of  these  forty  species  are  evergreens,  found 
mostly  on  the  mountains  of  the  Coast  Range  and  the  Sierras. 
The  most  remarkable  of  these  are  the  two  species  of  Sequoia, 
Sequoia  gigmitea,  or  mammoth  tree,  and  Sequoia  sempervweiis, 
or  California  Redwood.  Of  the  former  there  are  nine  proves 
known  in  the  State,  though  the  largest  trees  have  been  felled 
by  the  barbarity  of  the  showmen,  who  could  not  be  contented 
without  despoiling  the  forests  of  their  monarchs,  the  growth  of 
thousands  of  years,  only  that  they  might  exhibit  their  own  mean- 
ness and  brutishness  for  a miserable  pittance.  Some  of  these 
trees  were  more  than  450  feet  in  heiglit,  with  a circumference 
near  the  ground  of  not  less  than  120  feet.  The  giant  Eucalypti 
of  Australia  may  have  had  a somewhat  greater  circumference, 
but  they  were  not  as  tall  as  these.  The  largest  now  standing 
is  said  to  be  376  feet  in  height  and  106  in  circumference. 

The  Mariposa  and  Calaveras  groves  are  the  best  known, 
though  not  the  largest,  of  these  collections  of  mighty  trees. 
Mr.  A.  R.  Whitehill,  of  the  Chicago  Tribune,  who  has  recently 
viisited  several  of  these  groves,  thus  describes  the  “Grizzly 
Chant,”  and  the  Mariposa  grove  in  that  paper: 

“ The  principal  tree  in  the  grove  is  the  one  known  as  the 
‘ Grizzly  Giant,’  and  the  eye  and  sense  of  the  spectator  are  at 
once  bewildered  at  the  size  of  its  mighty  proportions.  At  the 
base  of  this  tree  the  carriage  road  stops,  and  the  trail  for  horses 
begins.  Carefully  measuring  the  circumference  with  a line  car- 
ried for  that  purpose,  we  found  it  to  be  over  ninety- three  feet  at 
the  base,  and  this  not  counting  the  burnt-away  portions,  which 
would  have  made  the  total  still  greater.  We  measured  thirty- 
one  feet  as  the  diameter.  At  the  base  were  five  openings,  any 
one  of  which  seemed  large  enough  for  the  accommodation  of  a 
camping  party ; and  immediately  around  these  the  bark  was 
gone.  Prom  the  ground  to  a height  of  about  eleven  feet  the 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


176 

tree  contracted  perceptibly;  then,  perfectly  round,  it  shot  up 
with  scarcely  a change  to  the  lowest  limbs,  which  were  fully  100 
feet  from  the  ground.  On  one  side  were  about  ten  limbs,  vary- 
ing from  two  to  six  feet  in  diameter,  and  on  the  other  about 
twelve  almost  as  large.  The  largest  limb  was  probably  150  feet 
from  the  ground,  and  this  was  fully  twenty  feet  in  circumference 
where  it  left  the  trunk.  Shooting  out  in  a straight  line  for  a 
distance  of  thirty  feet  or  more,  it  curved  then  suddenly  upward 
in  a perpendicular  direction,  and,  at  a distance  of  seventy-five 
feet  more,  was  lost  in  the  upper  foliage.  Secondary  branches, 
as  large  as  a full-grown  eastern  oak,  shot  out  from  this  primary 
branch  as  a trunk,  and  there  again  produced  other  branches,  to 
the  third  and  fourth  generation.  Some  of  these  branches  were 
decayed ; some  were  moss-covered ; some  were  in  the  full  vigor 
of  their  extraordinary  growth.  The  top  of  the  tree  seemed  to 
have  been  broken  off,  perhaps  by  lightning ; and  the  appearance 
of  the  whole  was  that  of  a war-worn  veteran  of  the  Sierra. 

‘Tt  was  near  dusk  when  we  had  finished  our  inspection  of  this 
mighty  tree.  W e were  over  a mile  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  six  miles  from  our  stopping-place  for  the  night.  Still  we 
lingered.  Although  it  was  then  June,  yet  the  eternal . snows  of 
the  mountains  were  everywhere  around  us,  and,  as  the  huge 
banks  and  drifts  stretched  away  off  in  the  distance,  the  melting 
power  of  heat  and  the  elements  was  on  every  side  defied.  Not 
a weed  or  blade  of  grass  relieved  the  monotony  of  the  view ; not 
the  chirping  of  an  insect  or  the  twittering  of  a bird  was  heard. 
The  solemn  stillness  of  the  night  added  a weird  grandeur  to  the 
scene.  Now  and  then  a breath  of  wind  stirred  the  topmost 
branches  of  the  pines  and  cedars,  and,  as  they  swayed  to  and  fro 
in  the  air,  the  music  was  like  that  of  Ossian,  ‘pleasant,  but 
mournful  to  the  souk’  There  were  sequoias  on  every  side 
almost  twice  as  high  as  the  Falls  of  Niagara ; there  were  pines 
rivaling  the  dome  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington  in  grandeur; 
there  were  cedars  to  whose  tops  the  monument  of  Bunker  Hill 
would  not  have  reached.  There  were  trees  which  were  in  the 
full  vicror  of  manhood  before  America  itself  was  discovered ; 
there  were  others  which  were  yet  old  before  Charlemagne  was 


THE  GIANT  TREES  OF  MARIPOSA. 


177 


born  ; there  were  others  still  growing  when  the  Saviour  himself 
was  on  the  earth.  There  were  trees  which  had  witnessed  the 
winds  and  storms  of  twenty  centuries ; there  were  others  which 
would  endure  long  after  countless  generations  of  the  future 
would  be  numbered  with  the  past.  There  were  trees  crooked 
and  short  and  massive ; there  were  others  straight  and  tall  and 
slender ; there  were  pines  whose  limbs  were  as  finely  propor- 
tioned as  those  of  the  Apollo  Belvidere ; there  were  cedars 
whose  beauty  was  not  surpassed  in  their  counterparts  of  Leba- 
non;'there  were  firs  whose  graceful  foliage  was  like  the  fabled 
locks  of  the  gods  of  ancient  story.  It  was  a picture  in  nature 
which  captivated  the  sense  at  once  by  its  grandeur,  and  extent; 
and,  as  we  drove  back  through  six  miles  of  this  forest  luxuri- 
ance, with  the  darkness  falling  about  us  like  a black  curtain  from^ 
the  heavens,  and  the  mighty  canons  of  the  Sierra  sinking  away 
from  our  pathway  like  the  openings  to  another  world,  then  it 
was  not  power,  but  majesty ; not  beauty,  but  sublimity ; not  the 
natural,  but  the  supernatural,  which  seemed  above  us  and 
before  us.” 

The  Sequoia  sernpe^^virens,  or  Redwood,  is  a very  stately  tree, 
attaining  a height  of  300  feet  and  a circumference  of  seventy- 
five  or  eighty  feet.  It  is  the  most  valuable  timber-tree  of  Cali- 
fornia, but  is  fast  disappearing,  being  confined  to  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  Coast  Range,  not  appearing  below  San  Luis  Obispo 
and  but  sparingly  below  San  Francisco,  and  disappearing  entirely 
when  felled,  being  replaced  by  other  trees.  Its  gigantic  congener 
does  not  appear  on  the  Coast  Range,  but  is  confined  to  four  or 
five  counties  along  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierras.  Both  of 
these  trees  belong  to  the  cedar  family.  The  sugar  pine  [Pmus 
Lambertiana)  is  almost  the  peer  of  the  Redwood  in  size  and 
commercial  value.  Its  wood  is  white,  straight-grained,  clear  and 
free-splitting.  Its  height  is  sometimes  300  feet,  and  its  circum- 
ference forty-five  feet.  It  has  cones  eighteen  inches  long  and 
four  thick ; a sweetish,  resinous  gum  exudes  from  the  harder 
portion  of  the  wood,  tasting  much  like  manna,  and  having  cathar- 
tic properties.  There  are  fifteen  other  species  of  pine,  of  which 
the  finest  are  the  Pinus  po7iderosa,  or  yellow  pine,  225  feet  high, 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


178 

Pin7is  Sabiniana,  Sabine’s  or  nut  pine,  which  has  an  edible  cone 
or  nut.  much  valued  by  the  Indians,  and  Pinus  insignis,  or  Mon- 
terey pine.  This  and  the  yellow  pine  are  similar  to  our  yellow 
and  pitch  pines  at  the  East,  and  are  in  demand  for  flooring  pur- 
poses. The  other  species  of  pines  rise  from  30  to  100  feet 
in  height,  but  are  not  so  much  prized.  There  are  six  species  of 
true  fir,  one  of  them,  Abies  Douglasii,  Douglas’s  spruce,  being 
300  feet  in  height,  and  three  of  the  others,  stately  trees,  100  feet 
or  more  in  height ; the  western  balsam  fir,  Picea  gra7tdisy  grows 
to  the  height  of  1 50  feet. 

The  California  white  cedar — Libocedrus  decurrens — grows 
to  the  height  of  140  or  150  feet.  There  are  also  four  species  of 
cypress,  three  of  juniper,  two  of  arbor-vitae,  and  one  of  yew — 
Taxus  brevifolia — which  attains  the  height  of  seventy-five  feet. 
The  wild  nutmeg — Torreya  Calif  arnica — the  California  laurel — 
Oreodaphne  Calif  arnica — the  madrona — Arbutus  Menziesii — and 
the  manzanita — Arctastaphylas  glauca — are  all  beautiful  ever- 
greens. There  are  twelve  species  of  oak,  two  of  them  ever- 
green or  live  oaks,  the  rest  deciduous.  The  burr  oak — Quercus 
niacracaipa? — is  the  largest  of  these,  but  its  wood,  like  most  of 
the  others,  is  principally  valuable  for  fuel.  The  Quercus  Garry- 
a7ia,  sometimes  called  white  oak,  though  not  a large  tree,  has  a 
dense,  fine-grained  wood,  used  for  making  agricultural  imple- 
ments. There  is  one  of  the  chestnut  family,  the  Western  chin- 
quapin, a fine  tree,  sometimes  attaining  a height  of  125  feet, 
d'here  are  four  acacias,  thorny  enough;  three  poplars,  or  cotton- 
woods, one  very  large  ; two  alders  ; the  Mexican  sycamore  ; one 
species  of  walnut — fuglans  rupestris — a fine  tree  ; three  species 
of  dogwood  or  Cornel,  all  differing  from  the  Eastern  dogwoods ; 
four  wild  lilacs;  two  wild  cherries,  both  shrubs;  two  maples — 
Acer  7nacraphylhim — a large  and  beautiful  tree — and  Acer  circi- 
7iatum — the  vine  maple,  a smaller  tree,  found  only  in  the  moun-^ 
tains.  There  are  three  yuccas,  two  species  of  willow,  a box 
elder,  an  Oregon  ash,  and  the  flowering  ash,  which  is  not  a true 
ash,  one  species  of  buckeye,  one  of  ironwood,  a Parkmsania  or 
greenwood,  small  but  elegant ; two  or  more  species  of  cactus,  a 
native  persimmon,  and  the  valuable  Japanese  species ; the  pis- 


CALIFORNIA  TREES,  SHRUBS  AND  GRASSES. 


179 


tachio-nut  and  many  species  of  semi-tropical  trees  which  are 
unknown  elsewhere.  The  shrubs  and  small  fruits  are  numerous, 
but  the  cultivation  of  these  and  of  grapes  and  edible  nuts  and 
berries  belongs  rather  to  horticulture.  There  are  many  medi- 
cinal plants  and  shrubs,  some  of  them  possessing  very  valuable 
qualities.  Grasses  are  very  numerous,  and  some  of  them  highly 
nutritious,  but  they  are  nearly  all  annuals,  and  except  in  the 
foggy  regions  along  the  northwestern  coast,  there  are  hardly 
any  native  grasses  which  will  make  a sod  or  which  are  adapted 
for  hay.  The  greater  part  of  the  State  is  entirely  destitute  of 
anything  like  a permanent  sod,  and  aside  from  the  wild  oat 
{Avena  sativa),  the  wild  barley  {^Hordeuju  jubatum),  the  burr 
clover  {Medicago  denticulatd)  and  four  or  five  species  of  native 
clovers,  which  are  annuals,  and  are  cured  by  the  sun  at  the 
beginning  of  the  dry  season,  but  form  for  a time  good  pasturage, 
the  farmer  and  stock-raiser  is  compelled  to  rely  on  Alfalfa  and 
the  forage  grasses  and  cereals,  Hungarian,  German,  and  pearl 
millet,  Egyptian  rice-corn  or  Dhurra,  oats,  wheat,  rye,  sor- 
ghum as  a forage  plant,  etc.,  for  late  feeding  of  his  stock. 

Wild  flowers  abound  in  California,  many  of  them  those  highly 
prized  by  florists  elsewhere,  of  remarkable  beauty  of  form  and 
color,  and  some  of  them  exceedingly  fragrant.  The  lily  and 
syringa  families,  many  of  them  shrubs  and  even  trees,  and  con- 
spicuous alike  for  beauty  and  fragrancy,  are  found  growing  wild 
and  filling  the  air  for  long  distances  with  their  perfume.  Of 
cryptogamous  plants,  the  quantity  and  variety  is  almost  without 
limit.  One  hundred  species  of  mosses  have  been  described, 
and  the  mushrooms,  seaweeds,  lichens  and  fungi  are  still  more 
abundant. 

Zoology, — There  are  1 1 5 species  of  mammalia  in  California, 
of  which  twenty-seven  are  carnivorous,  including  the  grizzly, 
black,  and  brown  or  Mexican  bear,  the  raccoon,  badger,  two 
species  of  skunk,  the  wolverine  fisher,  American  sable  or  mar- 
ten, mink,  yellow-cheeked  weasel,  California  otter  and  sea  otter, 
the  cougar,  jaguar,  wild  cat,  red  lynx  and  banded  lynx,  raccoon 
fox  or  mountain  cat,  gray  wolf,  coyote  or  barking  wolf  (this 
differs  somewhat  from  the  prairie  wolf,  and  is  becoming  annoy- 


jgo  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

ingly  abundant  in  the  State,  preying  upon  lambs,  young  pigs, 
fowls,  etc.),  five  species  of  fox,  three  or  four  species  of  sea-lion, 
two  species  of  seal,  and  the  sea-elephant.  The  larger  and  more 
formidable  of  these  carnivora  are  becoming  rare  in  the  State 
except  in  some  of  the  more  sparsely  inhabited  counties ; the 
grizzly  and  other  bears  are  found  in  the  mountains,  but  the 
felidcp,  especially  the  cougar,  jaguar,  and  the  lynxes  are  rare, 
and  the  gray  wolf  is  not  often  found  near  the  settlements. 

Of  the  insect  eaters,  there  are  two  moles,  two  shrews,  and  six- 
teen species  of  bats.  Of  the  rodents,  there  are  the  beaver,  the 
sewellel  or  mammoth  mole,  five  species  of  ground-squirrels, 
pests  which  multiply  by  the  million  and  levy  their  assessments 
upon  the  grain  crop,  often  carrying  off  half  the  crop  and  riddling 
the  stacks  and  sacks  of  grain,  and  even'  finding  their  way  into 
the  barns  and  storehouses.  There  are  also  five  species  of  tree- 
squirrels,  more  harmless  in  their  character.  Of  the  mouse  family 
there  are  eighteen  species,  including  three  naturalized  ones. 
The  musk-rat,  jumping  mouse,  four  species  of  kangaroo  mice, 
and  five  of  gophers,  a pest  almost  as  destructive  of  trees,  shrubs, 
and  plants  as  the  squirrel  is  of  the  grain.  There  is  a yellow- 
haired porcupine,  six  species  of  hares  and  rabbits,  some  of  them 
peculiar  to  the  Pacific  coast,  and  a coney  or  rat-rabbit.  Of 
ruminants,  there  are  the  elk,  the  white-tailed,  black-tailed,  and 
mule-deer,  the  American  antelope,  the  mountain  goat  or  goat- 
antelope,  and  the  big-horn  or  mountain  sheep. 

Of  the  cetacea,  as  well  as  of  the  sea-fishes,  California  claims 
justly  all  that  are  found  in  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  within  the 
bounds  of  the  United  States,  possibly  excluding  Alaska.  This 
includes  the  right  and  the  California  gray  whale,  the  hump-back 
and  fin-back,  two  of  the  beaked  whales,  the  sperm  whale,  the 
black  fish  and  three  species  of  porpoise. 

Of  birds  there  are  350  species  or  more,  recognized  as  natives 
of  California.  There  are  twenty  species  of  climbers,  fifteen  of 
them  wood-peckers ; of  birds  of  prey  there  are  thirty-seven 
species,  including  five  of  the  eagle  family,  ten  species  of  buzzard- 
hawks,  four  hawks  and  four  falcons  ; twelve  species  of  owls ; the 
king  of  the  vultures,  and  the  turkey-buzzard,  or  turkey-vulture. 


OBJECTS  OF  INI E REST  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


l8l, 

There  are  eleven  species  of  perchers  in  the  first  group,  including 
the  crows,  ravens,  magpies,  jays,  and  king-fishers;  148  species 
in  the  second  and  third  groups,  the  insectivorous  and  granlvor- 
ous  perchers,  including  the  fly-catchers,  humming-birds,  swallows, 
wax-wings,  shrikes,  tanagers,  robins  and  thrushes,  wrens,  chicka- 
dees, grosbeaks,  finches,  linnets,  larks,  orioles,  and  sparrows. 
There  are  but  three  species  of  pigeons,  the  band-tailed  pigeon, 
and  the  turtle  and  ground-doves.  Of  grouse  there  are  the  blue 
grouse,  sage-cock,  prairie-hen,  and  ruffed  grouse,  and  three  new 
species  of  quail.  The  waders  are  numerous,  fifty-one  species 
having  been  described.  These,  include  cranes,  herons,  bitterns, 
ibises,  plover,  kill-deer,  avocets,  snipes,  sandpipers,  curlews,  rails 
and  coots.  Of  swimmers  over  ninety  species  have  been  de- 
scribed, including  many  species  of  geese,  brant,  teal,  ducks, 
scooters,  coots,  sheldrakes,  mergansers,  pelicans,  cormorants, 
albatrosses,  fulmars,  petrels,  gulls,  terns,  loons,  dippers,  auks, 
sea-pigeons  and  murres. 

Of  the  fishes,  about  240  species  have  been  discovered  in  the 
lakes,  bays,  rivers,  and  on  the  sea-coast  of  California,  of  which 
more  than  200  are  edible.  These  include  nine  species  of  the 
salmon  family,  four  of  the  cod  family,  a dozen  eels,  seven  or 
eight  species  of  mackerel ; numerous  species  of  the  perch  family 
and  the  allied  genera ; two  tautogs,  viz.,  the  red-fish  and  the 
kelp-fish;  fifteen  flat  fish  and  flounders;  nine  species  of  shad, 
herring  and  anchovies,  two  of  them  introduced  from  the  East ; 
twenty-two  carps,  and  thirty-five  species  of  cartilaginous  fishes, 
sturgeons,  sharks,  rays,  sun-fish,  etc.,  etc. 

There  are  sixty  species  of  mollusks,  including  a great  variety 
of  clams,  oysters,  mussels,  scollops,  whelks,  limpets,  sea-snails, 
cuttle-fish,  squids,  nautiluses,  etc.,  etc.  Of  crustaceans  there  are 
eight  or  ten  species,  including  crabs,  king-crabs,  lobsters,  shrimps 
and  craw-fish.  Of  the  reptiles  there  are  great  numbers,  though 
there  are  no  true  saurians  (alligators  or  crocodiles),  except  in 
the  Colorado  river  on  the  southeast  border  of  the  State.  There 
are  three  species  of  tortoise,  possibly  some  terrapins,  thirty-one 
lizards,  five  rattle-snakes,  twenty-five  species  of  harmless  snakes, 
twenty-three  frogs,  several  toads,  horned  toads,  salamanders,  etc. 


i82 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


Objects  of  Interest  and  Wonder. — First  among  these  is  the  far- 
famed  valley  of  the  Yosemite,  known  everywhere  as  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  The  best  and  most  accurate  and  satis^ 
factory  description  of  this  wonderful  valley  ever  written  is  that 
from  the  pen  of  Josiah  D.  Whitney,  LL.  D,,  State  Geologist  of 
California,  and  a member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Science. 
This  description,  slightly  condensed,  we  give  below : 

“ The  word  Yosemite  means  ‘ a full-grown  grizzly  bear,’  and 
was  not  the  aboriginal  name  of  the  valley  itself,  but  that  of  a 
noted  chief  of  the  tribe  inhabiting  it.  The  present  Indian  name 
of  the  Yosemite  is  said  to  be  Ah-wah-nee. 

“The  Yosemite  valley  is  situated  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  of 
California,  about  150  miles  in  a direct  line  a little  south  of  east 
from  San  Francisco,  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  State  of  Califor- 
nia, north  and  south,  and  about  midway  between  the  east  and 
west  bases  of  the  Sierra,  which  is  here  not  far  from  seventy  miles 
in  width.  It  is  a level  area,  about  six  miles  in  length,  and  from 
half  a mile  to  a mile  in  width,  and  is  sunk  nearly  a mile  in  depth 
below  the  general  level  of  the  adjacent  region.  It  has  very 
much  the  character  of  a gorge  or  trough,  hollowed  in  the  moun- 
tains in  a direction  nearly  at  right  angles  to  their  general  trend. 
This  gorge  has  not  a regular  form,  but  while  its  general  direc- 
tion remains  nearly  the  same,  its  sides  advance  and  retreat,  with 
angular  projections  and  recesses,  thus  giving  a great  variety  of 
outline  to  the  enclosing  masses.  The  river  Merced,  which  rises 
in  the  Sierra,  some  fifteen  miles  higher  up  than  the  head  of  the 
valley,  in  the  group  of  mountains  of  which  Mount  Lyell  is  the 
dominating  peak,  runs  through  the  Yosemite  with  many  graceful 
windings,  and  gives  rise  at  the  head  of  the  valley  to  the  remark- 
able waterfalls,  which  will  be  noticed  farther  on.  Two  branches 
of  the  main  Merced  also  enter  the  valley  near  its  head ; one,  the 
Tenaya  Fork,  which  rises  in  a beautiful  mountain  lake  of  the 
same  name,  comes  in  from  the  northeast ; the  other,  the  Illilou- 
ette,  enters  from  the  south.  These  tributaries  join  the  Merced 
through  deep  canons,  as  the  mountain  gorges  in  the  Sierra  are 
always  called ; but  there  are  several  other  smaller  streams  which 
also  enter  the  valley,  leaping  over  its  walls,  and  giving  rise  in 


THE  YOSEMITE  VALLE  K 


183 

almost  every  instance,  to  interesting  falls ; which,  however,  are 
not  in  general  of  any  great  size,  except  during  the  early  part  of 
the  season,  when  the  snow  upon  the  adjacent  mountains  is 
melting. 

“The  pleasure-seeking  traveller,  who  visits  the  Yosemite,  does 
not  confine  his  explorations  to  the  valley  proper,  but  from  vari- 
ous commanding  points  adjacent  to  it  obtains  a great  variety  of 
views  of  the  groups  of  peaks  which  form  the  crest  of  the  Sierra 
in  that  region,  as  well  as  of  the  spurs  which  extend  down  from 
the  main  range,  or  stretch  along  parallel  with  it.  Thus  a jour- 
ney to  the  Yosemite  properly  includes  a tour  around  its  exterior, 
or  at  least  one  or  more  visits  to  prominent  points  of  view  above 
it,  from  which  the  observer  cannot  only  look  directly  down  into 
the  depths  of  the  valley  below  him,  but  also  command  a variety 
of  views  of  lofty  and  in  part  snow-clad  ranges,  which  offer  among 
themselves  most  remarkable  contrasts  of  form  and  structure. 

“In  noticing  the  details  of  the  scenery  of  the  Yosemite,  the 
valley  proper  may  first  be  considered.  The  prominent  features 
here  are : the  great  elevation  of  the  walls  which  enclose  it ; the 
remarkable  approach  to  verticality  in  these  walls  ; their  great 
height  and  their  wonderful  variety  and  beauty  of  form.  To 
these  features  may  also  be  added  the  attractions  of  the  mag- 
nificent waterfalls  which  occur  at  various  points  on  both  sides  of 
the  valley,  although  these,  as  already  noticed,  must  be  seen  early 
in  the  season  in  order  that  the  traveller  may  be  greatly  im- 
pressed by  them.  In  entering  the  Yosemite  by  the  roads  which 
approach  it  from  the  lower  end,  the  visitor  notices  that  he  has 
before  him  a valley  of  a different  type  of  form  from  those  he 
has  before  been  accustomed  to  see.  He  passes  from  a V-shaped 
gorge  or  canon  into  one  which  may  be  fairly  called  U-shaped, 
since  its  walls  rise  almost  vertically  from  its  floor.  This  change 
of  form  is  strikingly  impressed  on  the  visitor  as  he  approaches 
what  may  be  called  the  gateway  of  the  Yosemite.  Here  he 
sees  before  him,  on  the  north  side  of  the  valley,  the  mass  of 
rock  called  El  Capitan,  and  exactly  opposite  the  Bridal  Veil  and 
Cathedral  Rocks.  At  this  point  the  distance  across  the  valley  is 
only  a mile,  measured  from  the  summit  of  the  Bridal  Veil  Rock 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


184 

to  that  of  El  Capitan,  and  at  the  base  of  these  cliffs  there  is  only 
just  room  for  the  river  to  pass.  El  Capitan  is  an  immense 
block  of  granite  projecting  squarely  out  into  the  valley,  and 
presenting  two  almost  vertical  faces,  which  meet  in  a sharp  edge 
3,300  feet  in  perpendicular  elevation.  The  sides  or  walls  of  this 
mass  are  bare,  smooth  and  entirely  destitute  of  vegetation.  It 
is  doubtful  if  anywhere  in  the  world  there  is  presented  so 
squarely  cut,  so  lofty  and  so  imposing  a face  of  rock.  On  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  valley  is  the  grand  mass  of  the  Cathedral  Rocks, 
divided  into  two  parts  by  a deep  notch  between  them.  The 
most  striking  face  of  the  larger  Cathedral  Rock  is  turned  up 
the  valley,  but  on  the  side  facing  the  entrance  there  is  a feature 
of  great  beauty,  namely,  the  Bridal  Veil  Falls,  made  by  the  creek 
of  the  same  name,  which,  as  it  enters  the  valley,  descends  in  a 
vertical  sheet  of  630  feet  perpendicular,  striking  there  a pile  of 
debris,  down  which  it  rushes  in  a series  of  cascades,  with  a vertical 
descent  of  nearly  300  feet  more,  the  total  height  of  the  fall  being 
900  feet.  This  creek  flows  through  the  entire  year,  but  the  fall 
is  only  great  when  the  amount  of  water  is  near  its  maximum. 
When  the  stream  is  neither  too  full  nor  too  low,  the  mass  of  water, 
in  its  fall,  vibrates  with  the  varying  pressure  of  the  wind  blowing 
in  the  daytime  up  the  valley  in  the  most  beautiful  and  remark- 
able manner.  It  is  this  fluttering  and  waving  of  the  sheet  of 
water  which  has  given  it  the  poetic  but  somewhat  fanciful  name 
it  now  bears,  that  of  the  Indians  having  been  Pohono,  a term 
having  reference,  it  is  said,  to  the  chilliness  of  the  air  under  the 
high  cliff  and  near  the  falling  waters.  There  is  also  a charming 
fall  in  a deep  square  recess  of  the  rocks  opposite  the  Bridal 
Veil,  and  just  below  El  Capitan.  This  fall,  which  is  over  1,000 
feet  high,  is  called  the  Virgin’s  Tears.  It  runs,  however,  but  a 
short  time  during  the  early  summer  months. 

Passing  up  the  valley  after  entering  between  the  Cathedral 
Rocks  and  El  Capitan,  the  level  area  or  river-bottom  increases 
to  nearly  half  a mile  in  width.  This  area  is  broken  up  into 
small  meadows,  gay  with  flowers  in  the  early  summer,  and 
sandier  regions  on  which  grow  numerous  pitch-pines,  and  some 
oaks,  cedars  and  firs.  The  walls  of  the  valley  continue  lofty  and 


THE  YOSEMITE  VALLEY. 


l85 


broken  into  the  most  picturesque  forms.  Of  these  the  Three 
Brothers  and  the  Sentinel  Rock  are  the  most  conspicuous. 
Nearly  opposite  the  Sentinel  Rock  is  one  of  the  most  attractive 
features  of  the  Yosemite,  namely,  the  fall  made  by  the  descent 
of  Yosemite  creek  down  the  wall  on  the  north  side  of  the  valley. 
The  vertical  elevation  of  the  edge  of  this  fall  is  2,600  feet,  but 
the  descent  is  not  in  one  unbroken  sheet.  There  is  first  a 
vertical  fall  of  1,500  feet,  then  a descent  of  626  feet  in  a series 
of  cascades,  and  finally  one  plunge  of  400  feet  on  to  a low  talus 
of  rocks  at  the  foot  of  the  precipice.  The  body  of  water  is  not 
large,  and  it  decreases  considerably  as  the  season  advances,  be- 
coming very  small,  in  ordinary  years,  by  the  end  of  August. 
The  width  of  the  stream  in  June  and  July  is  usually  about  twenty 
feet,  and  its  depth  about  two  feet.  The  beauty  and  grandeur  of 
this  fall,  however,  taken  in  connection  with  the  majesty  of  its  sur- 
roundings, give  it  a claim  to  be  ranked  among  the  most  remark- 
able natural  objects  in  the  world.  There  are  certainly  very  few 
waterfalls  which  can  cornpete  with  it. 

“At  the  head  of  the  valley  the  falls  of  the  Merced  river  are  of 
great  interest.  There  are  two  of  them  with  beautiful  interven- 
ing rapids.  The  lower  one  is  called  the  Vernal  Fall,  and  is 
about  400  feet  in  vertical  height.  The  upper,  the  Nevada  Fall, 
is  about  600  feet  in  elevation.  The  body  of  water  in  these  falls 
is  large,  arid  the  effect  very  grand.  As  the  Merced  river  is  fed 
by  melting  snows  high  up  in  the  Sierra,  the  amount  of  water  is 
not  so  much  diminished  toward  the  end  of  the  season  as  it  is  in 
the  case  of  the  smaller  creeks  heading  at  an  inferior  elevation ; 
thus  the  falls  of  the  Merced  usually  remain  extremely  picturesque 
and  attractive  objects  during  the  whole  summer. 

“ The  dome-shaped  masses  of  granite  which  characterize  the 
vicinity  of  the  Yosemite  are  also  extremely  grand.  The  North 
Dome,  on  the  north  side  of  the  valley,  lends  itself  to  beautiful 
combinations  of  scenery,  as  seen  from  various  points  a little 
above  the  Yosemite  Falls.  The  Sentinel  Dome,  on  the  opposite 
side,  is  not  visible  from  the  valley  itself,  but  it  affords  a magnifi- 
cent view  from  its  summit  of  the  valley  and  its  surroundings, 
and  especially  of  the  high  Sierras.  A projecting  cliff  called 


i86 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


Glacier  Point,  a little  lower  than  this,  and  just  on  the  edge  of 
the  valley,  is  also  much  visited  for  the  sake  of  the  grand  view 
which  it  offers  of  the  whole  region,  but  especially  on  account  of 
its  favorable  situation  with  reference  to  the  Half-Dome,  of  which 
it  commands  a most  wonderful  view.  The  rock  thus  named  is 
the  highest  point  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Yosemite,  rising 
to  an  elevation  of  4,737  feet  above  the  general  level  of  the 
valley.  The  Half-Dome  has  the  appearance  of  having  been 
originally  a dome-shaped  mass  which  has  been  split  into  two 
parts,  one  of  which  has  sunk  down  and  disappeared ; hence  the 
name.  It  fronts  the  Valley  of  the  Tenaya  fork  of  the  Merced 
with  a very  steep  slope,  crowned  by  a vertical  wall  of  fully  1,600 
feet  in  elevation,  forming  together  a mass  of  rock  of  the  most 
astonishing  form  and  imposing  magnitude.  Arrangements  are 
now  made  by  which  this  Half-Dome,  or,  as  it  is  now  called,  the 
South  Dome,  may  itself  be  ascended.  It  is  a weary  climb,  pos- 
sible only  by  the  aid  of  a rope  of  great  strength  fastened  to  the 
rock  by  iron  staples  every  fifteen  feet,  by  which  the  climber 
works  his  way,  hand  over  hand,  for  about  1,500  feet;  but  the 
view  at  the  top  is  grand  and  beautiful.  Still  more  magnificent 
is  the  view  from  Cloud’s  Rest,  fourteen  miles  away  by  the  trail, 
and  a most  fatiguing  journey,  but  once  reached,  the  traveller 
feels  that  he  has  seen  ‘ all  the  kingdoms  of  the  world  and  the 
glory  of  them.’ 

“ The  rocky  citadel  juts  out  into  space,  so  that  you  seem 
isolated  from  the  world,  and  held  pendant  over  the  valley. 
Around  you  is  an  unbroken  horizon  of  mountain  peaks,  with 
the  great  valley  in  the  centre,  its  walls  dwarfed  to  pigmy  pro- 
portions. The  lesser  mountains  and  barren  rolling  ridges  re- 
semble nothing  so  much  as  a storm-tossed  ocean  turned  to 
stone.  A more  absolute  desolation  could  not  be  conceived. 
You  feel  the  weight  of  the  centuries  that  look  down  upon  you 
from  the  lonesome  peaks  of  the  Sierras.  The  spectacle  reminds 
one  strongly  of  maps  of  the  moon  ; it  gives  the  same  impres- 
sion of  lifeless  repose  after  giant  upheavals  of  mountains  and 
rending  of  rock-buttressed  walls.  Thomas  Hill,  the  artist,  says 
that  he  once  took  a seven  days’  camping  excursion  about  the 


YO SEMITE  AND  TUOLUMNE  VALLEYS.  jSj 

valley,  with  a nephew  of  the  present  Czar  of  Russia.  At  all  the 
other  peaks  the  Prince  found  some  mountain  in  the  Alps  or  the 
Himalayas  the  view  from  which  surpassed  the  one  before  him. 
But  when  the  summit  of  Cloud's  Rest  was  reached,  he  took  off 
his  hat  and  said : ‘ I salute  the  orrandest  view  in  the  world.’” 

O 

The  Yosemite  valley  was  given  by  Congress  to  the  State  of 
California  in  1864  to  be  “held  for  public  use,  resort,  and  recrea- 
tion,” to  be  also  “ inalienable  for  all  time  ” with  the  condition 
that  portions  of  the  valley  might  be  leased,  the  income  arising 
from  such  leases  to  be  expended  “ in  the  preservation  of  the 
property  or  the  roads  leading  thereto.”  The  grant  is  managed 
by  commissioners  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the  State. 
Wagon  roads,  railroads  and  trails  have  been  built  to  afford  more 
convenient  access  to  the  valley,  and  to  various  points  command- 
ing remarkable  views  of  the  valley  and  its  surroundings. 

The  Tuolumne  river,  another  tributary  of  the  San  Joaquin, 
which  enters  it  a few  miles  north  of  the  Merced  and  drains  Tuo- 
lumne county  as  the  Merced  does  Mariposa,  also  has  its  sources 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  about  fifty  miles  northwest  of  the 
Yosemite  valley,  flows  through  another  valley  nearly  or  quite 
as  picturesque  and  grand  as  the  Yosemite  and  with  as  many 
and  as  lofty  waterfalls. 

But  these  remarkable  valleys  do  not  furnish  all  the  natural 
wonders  of  California.  ' In  Tulare,  Fresno,  Mariposa,  Tuo- 
lumne, and  Calaveras  counties  there  are  groves  of  the  gigantic 
Sequoias,  whose  vast  height  and  wondrous  beauty  would  well 
repay  a journey  across  the  continent. 

In  Napa  county,  near  Calistoga,  is  a narrow  valley  where  are 
all  the  evidences  of  recent,  and,  indeed,  existing  volcanic  action. 
The  whole  valley  or  canon  is  filled  with  flowing  (not  spouting) 
hot  springs,  which  are  called  geysers  (an  inappropriate  name, 
though  they  are  very  singular  in  their  action,  flowing  with  inter- 
missions), and  the  whole  soil  is  covered  with  a crust  of  sulphur, 
iron-rust,  and  other  mineral  deposits,  and  filled  with  steam  from 
the  boiling  water.  The  ground  shakes  under  the  foot-steps,  and 
is  so  hot  as  to  be  uncomfortable  to  the  feet. 

Besides  these  there  are  the  natural  bridges  and  the  chyote 


i88 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


caves  of  Calaveras  county,  with  their  bell-sounding  rocks,  the 
magnificent  grotto  near  Grizzly  Flat,  in  El  Dorado  county ; of 
the  lakes,  Tahoe,  the  gem  of  the  mountains,  almost  at  the  sum- 
mit of  the  Sierras,  and  the  smaller  but  romantic  Lake  Donner 
on  the  boundary  line  of  Nevada;  Mono  (salt)  lake,  in  Mono 
county,  not  far  from  Yosemite;  Klamath  lake,  in  the  north; 
Tulare  lake  in  the  county  of  the  same  name  ; and  the  wild  vol- 
canic region  in  the  southeast  in  Inyo,  Mono,  San  Bernardino,  and 
Kern  counties ; that  region  of  horrors  enclosing  the  sink  of  the 
Amargoza  river,  the  “ Death  Valley,’’  of  which  we  have  already 
spoken,  400  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  while  within  sight 
of  it  the  Sierras  tower  14,000  or  15,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
This  deep  depression,  forty  miles  long  and  eight  or  ten  wide,  is 
partly  crusted  over  with  salt  and  soda  and  other  alkalies  several 
inches  thick,  and  partly  composed  of  an  ash-like  earth  mixed 
with  a tenacious  clay,  sand,  and  alkali  so  soft  that  no  animal  can 
cross  it  without  being  mired.  There  is  no  vegetation  on  any 
part  of  it,  and  the  temperature  during  at  least  six  months  of  the 
year  ranges  from  110°  to  140°  Fahrenheit. 

Clunates. — Prof.  E.  W.  Hilgard  thus  describes  the  various 
climates  of  the  State  : 

“Taking  as  a convenient  point  of  view  the  central  portion  of 
the  State,  the  climates  of  California  may  be  roughly  classified  as 
follows  : 

“I.  The  bay  and  coast  climate.  Its  prominent  characteristics 
are,  first,  the  small  range  of  the  thermometer,  caused  by  the 
tempering  influence  of  the  sea,  the  prevailing  winds  being  from 
the  west.  The  average  winter  and  summer  temperature  at  San 
Francisco  thus  differs  by  only  about  6°  Fahrenheit  (53°  and  59° 
respectively).  Snow  rarely  reaches  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is 
sometimes  not  seen  for  several  seasons,  even  on  the  summits  of 
the  Coast  Range. A few  light  frosts  with  the  thermometer  at 
between  28°  and  32°  Fahrenheit  for  a few  hours  during  the 


* The  winter  of  1880  was  one  of  the  exceptional  years  in  which  snow  did  reach  the  coast, 
and  the  thermometer  marked  18°  P'ahrenheit.  This  severe  weather  was  very  destructive  to 
flowering  plants  and  shrubs,  but  was  said  not  to  have  occurred  for  more  than  thirty  years  pre- 
viously. Ordinarily,  the  fuchsia  and  heliotrope  live  and  thrive  in  the  open  air  there  in  winter. 


BAV  AND  COAST  CLIMATE. 


189 

night  is  the  ordinary  expectation  for  winter,  while  in  summer  the 
number  of  ‘hot’  days  on  which  the  thermometer  reaches  80°  or 
more,  rarely  exceeds  eight  or  ten.  These  occur  chiefly  in  Sep- 
tember and  under  the  influence  of  the  ‘ norther,’  which  causes 
the  hot  dry  air  of  the  interior  valleys  to  overflow  the  barrier  of 
the  Coast  Range.  Under  a brilliantly  clear  sky,  it  sweeps  over 
the  mountains,  accompanied  by  clouds  of  dust,  and,  like  the  hot 
breath  of  a furnace,  it  licks  up  all  moisture  before  it,  wilting  and 
withering  the  leaves  of  all  but  the  most  hardy  plants,  .cracking 
and  baking  the  soil,  loosening  the  joints  of  all  wooden  structures, 
whether  wagons,  furniture,  or  houses,  and  causing  the  latter  to 
resound  at  night  with  the  splitting  of  panels  and  similar  unearthly 
noises,  to  the  discomfort  of  the  nervous  sleepers,  that  at  such 
times  comprise  the  vast  majority  of  the  population.  This  uni- 
versal infliction  fortunately  lasts  but  rarely  more  than  three  days, 
when  the  welcome  sea-fog,  which  has  been  kept  standing  like  a 
wall  forty  or  fifty  miles  in  the  offing,  gradually  advances,  and 
with  its  grateful  coolness  and  moisture  infuses  fresh  life  into  the 
parched  vegetation  and  the  irritable,  panting  population. 

“ During  the  winter  months  the  north  wind  is  equally  dry,  but 
at  the  same  time  cold ; and  while  it  then  sometimes  lasts  a week 
or  more,  it  causes  but  little  discomfort  or  damage,  save  occa- 
sionally to  the  young  grass  and  grain.  The  second  distinctive 
feature  of  the  coast  climate  is  the  fogs  brought  in  from  the  sea 
by  the  prevailing  west  winds  or  summer  trades,  as  the  result  of 
their  crossing  the  cold  Alaskan  current  in-shore.  The  sea-fogs, 
coming  in  regularly  almost  every  afternoon  from  the  latter  part 
of  June  to  that  of  August,  and  more  or  less  throughout  the  year, 
often  with  a gorgeous  display  of  cloud  pictures,  temper  materi- 
ally not  only  the  heat,  but  also  the  summer  drought ; so  that 
under  their  influence  plants  requiring  but  a moderate  degree  of 
moisture  can,  in  a loose  soil,  grow  throughout  that  season.  In 
the  latitude  of  San  Francisco  it  thus  happens  that  in  the  coast 
climate  sub-tropical  and  northern  plants  may  thrive  side  by  side; 
the  latter  (such  as  currants  and  cranberries)  ripening  with  ease 
and  in  great  perfection,  while  the  fig,  grape,  orange,  etc.,  though 
growing  luxuriantly,  can  ripen  their  fruit  only  in  valleys  pro- 


190 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


tected  by  mountain  ridges  from  the  direct  influence  of  the  sum- 
mer trade-winds.  Thus  while  a broad  river  of  fog  may  be  pour- 
ing in  at  the  Golden  Gate,  covering  the  two  cities  and  spreading 
out  on  the  opposite  shore  to  a width  of  eight  or  ten  miles,  the 
hamlet  of  San  Rafael,  only  fourteen  miles  to  the  north,  but  under 
the  lee  of  Mount  Tamalpais,  and  the  old  town  of  San  Jose,  under 
the  protection  of  its  seaward  mountains,  forty  miles  to  the  south, 
are  mostly  basking  in  full  sunshine,  and  ripen  to  great  perfec- 
tion not  only  the  grape,  but  also  the  more  tender  fruits  of  their 
groves  of  fig  and  orange. 

2.  Climate  of  the  great  interior  valley.  “The  average  winter 
temperature  is  lower  than  that  of  corresponding  portions  of  the 
coast,  although  the  minimum  is  little,  if  at  all,  below  that  of  the 
latter.  Sub-tropical  plants,  therefore,  winter  there  almost  as 
readily  as  on  the  coast.  In  summer,  however,  the  average 
temperature  is  high,  often  remaining  above  ioo°  Fahrenheit  for 
many  days,  the  nights  also  being  very  warm.  At  the  same  time, 
however,  the  air  is  so  dry  as  to  render  the  heat  much  less 
oppressive  than  is  the  case  east  of  the  mountains,  sunstroke 
being  almost  unknown.  Standing  on  the  summits  of  the  Coast 
Range  in  summer,  and  looking  down  upon  the  thick  shroud  of 
fog  covering  all  to  seaward,  the  white  masses  can  be  seen  drift- 
ing  against  the  mountain  side,  and,  rising  upward,  dissolving 
into  thin  air  as  soon  as,  on  passing  the  divide,  they  meet  the 
warmth  of  the  Great  Valley.  From  points  in  the  latter  the 
cloud-banks  may  be  seen  filling  the  mountain  passes  and  some- 
times pouring  like  a cataract  over  the  summit  ridges,  but  power- 
less to  disturb  even  for  a moment  the  serenity  of  the  summer 
sky,  or  to  yield  a drop  of  moisture  to  the  parched  soil  of  the  San 
Joaquin  plains.  The  unwary  traveller,  starting  from  Sacramento 
or  Stockton  on  a hot  summer’s  day  without  the  thought  of  shawl 
or  overcoat,  may  find  himself  chilled  to  the  bone  on  crossing  the 
Coast  Range,  and  runs  imminent  risk  of  rheumatism  or  pneu- 
monia. On  the  other  hand,  the  San  Franciscan,  feeling  the  need 
of  having  his  pores  opened  by  a good  perspiration,  can  have  his 
wish  gratified  in  an  hour  or  two  by  taking  the  reverse  direction. 
The  ‘norther’  is,  of  course,  more  frequent  in  the  great  valley 


INTERIOR  CLIMATE. 


I9I 

than  on  the  coast ; but  its  dryness  and  high  temperature  are  not 
so  much  of  a change  from  the  ordinary  condition  of  things,  and 
it  therefore  does  not  cause  such  general  remark,  disturbance,  or’ 
damage  unless  unusually  severe. 

3.  Clhnate  of  the  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  “ The  essential 
features  of  the  climate  of  the  Great  Valley  may  be  roughly  said 
to  extend  to  the  height  of  about  2,000  feet  up  its  flanks  into  the 
‘ foot-hills,’  with,  however,  an  increasing  rainfall  as  we  ascend, 
and  therefore  greater  safety  for  crops  and  less  absolute  depend- 
ence upon  irrigation.  Higher  up,  the  influence  of  elevation 
makes  itself  felt ; snow  falls  and  lies  in  winter,  while  the  summers 
are  cool;  and  we  thus  return  to  the  familiar  i^egime  of  seasons 
as  understood  in  the  Middle  and  Northern  States,  including, 
especially  in  the  more  northern  portion,  the  phenomenon  of 
summer  thunder-storms,  which  are  almost  unknown  on  the  coast 
and  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley.  The  same  general  features 
come  into  play  more  and  more  as  we  advance  northward  in  the 
hilly  and  mountainous  regions  lying  north  of  San  Francisco  bay, 
toward  the  Oregon  line,  marked  also  in  general  by  a gradual 
increase  of  timber  growth.  The  .features  of  the  three  principal 
climates  described  intermingle,  or  are  interspersed,  according  as 
the  valleys  are  open  to  seaward,  run  parallel  to  the  coast,  or  are 
in  communication  with  the  great  interior  valley.  We  thus  find 
numberless  local  climates,  ‘ thermal  belts,’  and  privileged  nooks 
adapted  to  special  cultures  which  may  be  impracticable  in  an 
adjoining  valley,  and  almost  insular  as  regards  the  region  where 
similar  conditions  are  predominant.  To  the  southward,  the  chief 
climates  above  defined  are  modified  by  three  factors,  viz. : the 
increase  of  temperature,  the  decrease  of  rainfall,  and  the  de- 
crease, from  about  San  Francisco  southward,  of  the  feature  of 
summer  fogs.  As  regards  temperature,  the  extreme  range  is 
still  very  nearly  the  same  at  Los  Angeles  as  at  San  Francisco ; 
but  the  averages  are  very  considerably  higher  at  the  former 
point,  that  of  the  winter  being  60°,  that  of  summer  about  75° 
Fahrenheit.  At  intermediate  points  along  the  coast,  local  varia- 
tions excepted,  the  averages  vary  as  sensibly  as  the  latitude. 
As  to  rainfall  along  the  coast,  its  decrease  is  slow,  descending 


192 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


from  twenty-four  inches  at  San  Francisco  to  fifteen  at  Santa 
Barbara,  twelve  at  Los  Angeles,  and  nine  to  ten  at  San  Diego. 
But  in  the  interior  valley  the  decrease  is  much  more  rapid,  as 
previously  stated,  modified  locally,  according  as  the  divide  of  the 
Coast  Range  is  so  high  as  to  preclude  the  access  of  moisture 
from  the  sea,  or  low  enough  to  admit  its  influence.  The  same 
factor  influences  also  the  cooling  and  moistening  effect  of  the 
summer  winds  and  fogs,  which  temper  the  summer  climate  of 
the  Los  Angeles  plain,  but  fail  to  reach  the  Mojave  desert  or 
the  fervid  plains  of  the  upper  San  Joaquin  valley.” 

We  supplement  this  general  statement  by  the  following  table, 
corrected  to  the  latest  date.  It  is  the  average  in  most  cases  of 
twenty  years  : 


Places. 

Mean 

temperature. 

Spring. 

Mean 

temperature. 

Summer. 

Mean 

temperature. 

Autumn. 

Mean 

temperature. 

Winter. 

Mean 

temperature. 

Year. 

Rainfall. 
December 
to  May. 

Rainfall. 

June  to 

November. 

Rainfall. 

Year. 

1 

San  Franci'sco 

56.3° 

59-5° 

58.8° 

51-9° 

56.6° 

24.97 

2.31 

27.28 

Sacramento 

58.5° 

71-5° 

62.  1° 

47-9° 

59-9° 

19.80 

1.70 

21.50 

Humboldt  Bay  . 

52.0° 

57-5° 

53-0° 

43-5° 

51-5° 

. . . 

57-24 

Benicia .... 

56.5° 

67.0° 

60.5° 

49.0° 

58.0° 

. . . 

22.86 

Monterey  . 

54-0° 

59-0° 

57-0° 

51.0° 

55*5° 

. . . 

12.20 

Visalia  .... 

60.6° 

79-5° 

60.9° 

48.6° 

62.4° 

9.96 

0-53 

10.49 

San  Diego  . 

59-4° 

69.1° 

63.8° 

54.1° 

61.6° 

1 1. 70 

.80 

12.50 

Los  Angeles  . 

58.6° 

68.6° 

65.1° 

54-3° 

61.7° 

19.88 

1.38 

21.26 

Fort  Yuma  . . | 

72.0° 

90.0° 

75-5° 

57.0° 

73-5° 

1.89 

•73 

2.62 

In  1878,  the  maximum  temperature  was  reached  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, September  15th  to  i8th,  when  the  thermometer  stood  at 
86°,  90°,  92°  and  93°  Fahrenheit.  In  no  other  days  of  the  year, 
except  one  in  October,  did  it  reach  80°.  The  lowest  point  was 
reached  on  the  4th  of  January  and  was  39°  Fahrenheit.  There 
were  no  frosts  during  the  year.  The  extreme  range  of  the  year 
was  54°. 

In  Sacramento  the  highest  point  reached  was  103°;  for  three 
days  the  thermometer  rose  above  100°  ; for  twenty-three  days  it 
exceeded  95°,  and  for  sixty-three  days  it  was  above  90°.  The 
lowest  point  was  reached  January  3d.  It  was  27°.  For  six 
days  there  were  frosts.  The  extreme  range  was  76°. 

In  San  Diego  the  thermometer  indicated  91°  on  the  first  of 


A GR/CUL  TURA  L PR  OD  UC  TS. 


193 


September,  but  did  not  reach  90°  on  any  other  day.  It  exceeded 
80°  only  eleven  days  of  the  year.  The  minimum  was  for  three 
days  in  January,  38°.  The  range  was  53°. 

Visalia  (latitude  36°  20',  west  longitude  from  Greenwich 
119.16)  reached  106.5°,  July  14th.  During  twenty-three  days 
the  temperature  exceeded  100°,  and  for  sixty-nine  days  it  ex- 
ceeded 95°.  The  minimum,  January  4th,  was  24°.  There  were 
eight  days  of  frost.  The  range  was  82.5°. 

Los  Angeles  (latitude  34°  3',  west  longitude  from  Greenwich 
1 18°  16')  reached  93°  on  the  20th  of  July  and  the  ist  of  Septem- 
ber. Seven  days  exceeded  90°.  The  minimum  was  36.5°  on 
the  31st  of  December.  There  were  no  frosts.  The  range  was 

56.5°* 

Fort  Yuma  (latitude  32°  43',  west  longitude  114°  36')  reached 
1 13°,  July  19th  ; four  days  were  above  112°;  eleven  days  above 
110°;  fifty-three  above  105°,  and  one  hundred  and  six  above 
100°.  In  other  years  the  maximum  had  been  as  high  as  126°. 
The  minimum,  December  31st  and  January  3d,  was  33°. 
Range  80°. 

California,  as  the  gateway  of  the  Pacific,  holds  a different 
position  to  “Our  Western  Empire”  from  any  other  State  or 
Territory  in  it.  With  its  fine  climate,  its  vast  extent  of  fertile 
soil,  its  rich  and  abundant  pasturage,  its  great  mineral  wealth, 
its  extensive  commerce,  and  its  growing  manufactures,  it  has  a 
career  before  it  much  like  that  of  the  State  of  New  York  on  the 
Atlantic  coast. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

COLORADO. 

Colorado,  often  called  “ the  Centennial  State,”  because  it  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  in  1876,  the  year  of  our  Centennial 
celebration  of  our  national  existence,  is  situated  very  nearly  in 
the  centre  of  “Our  Western  Empire,”  the  distance  in  a direct 


194 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


line  being  about  the  same  to  St.  Louis  and  to  San  Francisco — 
to  the  frontier  of  British  America  and  to  that  of  Mexico.  It  lies 
between  the  thirty-seventh  and  the  forty-first  parallels  of  north 
latitude,  and  between  the  I02d  and  the  109th  meridians  of  longi- 
tude west  from  Greenwich.  Its  width  from  north  to  south  is 
about  280  miles,  and  its  length  from  east  to  west  about  370 
miles.  Its  area  is  104,500  square  miles,  or  66,880,000  acres. 

The  great  plains  which  stretch  from  the  Missouri  river  to  the 
foot-hills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  rising  slowly  but  steadily  with 
each  mile  of  their  advance  westward,  have  attained,  when  they 
reach  the  mountains,  an  elevation  of  between  6,000  and  7,000 
feet  above  the  sea.  Eastern  Colorado,  for  about  three-sevenths 
of  its  extent,  from  east  to  west,  consists  of  the  most  elevated 
part  of  these  plains,  which  reach  as  far  as  Denver.  West  of  the 
105th  meridian  come  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  here  attain 
their  greatest  breadth.  The  mountains  consist  of  several  prin- 
cipal ranges  (which,  however,  do  not  extend  continuously  from 
north  to  south,  but  are  broken  off  and  made  irregular  by  the 
great  parks  which  are  a feature  of  the  mountains  in  Colorado), 
and  of  numerous  spurs  or  short  ranges  extending  westward, 
southwestward  and  northwestward,  and  terminating  usually  in 
broad  plateaux,  which  are  suddenly  broken  off  by  the  deep 
canons  of  the  Green,  Grand,  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Colo- 
rado of  the  West.  It  is  a feature  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
perhaps  of  all  mountain  chains  on  this  continent,  that  the  eastern 
slope  of  each  range  is  generally  much  more  gradual  than  the 
western,  and  that  the  ascent,  even  of  its  highest  summits,  is  less 
difficult  on  the  eastern  than  the  western  face.  The  western 
slope  of  each  range  is  generally  precipitous  and  sometimes  im- 
practicable. The  ranges  in  their  order,  beginning  with  the  east- 
ernmost, are  the  Colorado  Front  Range,  which,  though  adopting 
some  local  names  in  the  southern  part  of  its  course,  extends  from 
the  northern  to  the  southern  bounds  of  the  State.  It  has  several 
lofty  peaks,  among  which  are  Mount  Evans,  Mount  Rosalia,  Pike’s 
Peak,  and  Chief  Mountain.  The  first  three  are  over  14,000  feet 
in  height.  The  next  in  order  is  the  Northern  Colorado  or  Main 
Range,  which  joins  the  Front  Range  at  the  northern  face  of  the 


COLO  A' ADO  MOUNTAINS. 


195 


South  Park.  It  has  three  summits  above  14,000  feet,  and  three 
above  13,000;  the  first  three  are  Gray’s  Peak,  Irwin’s  Peak,  and 
Long’s  Peak ; the  second  three,  Arapahoe  Peak,  Mount  Guyot, 
and  James  Peak.  Bald  Mountain,  in  Gilpin  county,  10,322  feet, 
is  also  in  this  range.  The  Park  Range,  between  which  and  the 
preceding  are  situated  the  three  great  parks.  North,  Middle  and 
South,  extends  from  the  northern  border  of  the  State  nearly  to 
the  Arkansas  river,  in  latitude  38°  40'.  This  range  has  six  sum- 
mits of  14,000  feet  or  above,  viz. : Buckskin  Mountain,  Mount 
Cameron,  Horseshoe  Mountain,  Mount  Lincoln,  Quandary  Peak, 
Silverheels,  and  Sheep  Mountain,  12,589  feet. 

The  Sawatch  or  Saguache  Range,  which  is  reckoned  a part  of 
the  Main  Range,  begins  at  the  Grand  river  and  extends  south  as 
far  as  the  Saguache  river,  where  it  sends  out  a spur  to  the  south- 
west, known  as  the  Cochetopa  Hills — has  ten  summits,  all  but 
one  of  them  over  14,000  feet ; these  are:  Mount  Antero,  Mount 
Elbert,  Mount  Harvard,  Holy  Cross  Mountain,  La  Plata,  Mas- 
sive Mountain,  Mount  Princeton,  Shavano  and  Mount  Yale, 
while  Mount  Grizzly  is  13,956  feet  in  height. 

Between  the  Saguache  and  the  Park  ranges  is  interposed,  in 
Southern  Colorado,  the  Sangre  de  Christo  Range,  which  has 
four  summits  over  14,000  feet;  one  of  them,  Blanca  Peak,  the 
highest  in  Colorado,  and  the  highest,  except  one,  in  the  whole 
West.  Besides  Blanca,  Baldy  Peak,  Culebra  and  Hunt’s  Peak 
are  above  14,000  feet,  and  the  two  Spanish  Peaks  are  13,620 
and  12,720  feet  respectively. 

In  Southwestern  Colorado  there  is  a confused  group  of  moun- 
tains, consisting  of  the  main  or  dividing  range  and  numerous 
spurs,  known  as  the  Uncompahgre  Mountains,  San  Miguel 
Mountains,  Dolores,  La  Plata,  etc.  There  are  thirteen  principal 
peaks  in  this  group,  eleven  of  them  over  14,000  feet,  several  of 
which  are  within  a few  feet  of  the  altitude  of  Blanca  Peak. 
These  summits  are.  Mount  ^Elolus,  Handie’s  Peak,  Pyramid, 
Pridgeon’s  San  Luis  Peak,  Simpson’s,  Mount  Sneffles,  Stewart’s 
Peak,  Uncompahgre,  Wetterhorn,  Mount  Wilson,  and  the  two 
lower  summits,  Blaine’s  Peak,  13,905,  and  Engineer  Mountain, 
13,076  feet.  On  the  west,  these  mountains  terminate  in  broad 

40 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


196 

and  elevated  plateaux  and  mesas,  which  extend  to  the  river  banks 
and  there  are  riven  by  the  deep  canons  of  the  affluents  of  the 
Colorado.  Among  these  plateaux  are  the  Grand  Mesa,  north  of 
Gunnison  river,  the  Uncompahgre  Plateau,  between  the  Gunni- 
son and  the  Dolores,  and  extending  to  the  Grand  river ; the 
Dolores  Plateau,  between  the  Dolores  and  the  San  Miguel 
river,  and  the  Southwest  Plateau,  between  the  Dolores  and  the 
Rio  Mancos,  and  extending  to  the  San  Juan  river. 

In  Western  Colorado,  in  what  is  known  as  the  Gunnison 
country,  there  is  another  mass  of  mountains,  probably  spurs  from 
the  Saguache  or  Sawatch  range,  which  trend  northwestward, 
westward  and  southwestward.  There  are  many  summits  in  this 
group  which  is  known  as  the  Elk  Mountains ; more  than  twenty 
being  visible  from  the  summit  of  Castle  Peak,  but  only  four  rise 
to  14,000  feet,  and  one,  Teocalli,  is  but  13,113. 

Besides  those  which  we  have  named,  there  are  several  hun- 
dred peaks  in  the  State  ranging  from  10,000  to  12,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  which  would  be  noticeable  in  any  other  State,  but  rising 
from  elevated  table-lands  6,000  to  8,000  feet  above  the  sea,  they 
seem  much  less  lofty  than  they  otherwise  would.  Of  the  twenty 
most  famous  passes  over  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  this  State  only 
two  are  below  9,000  feet,  and  only  five,  of  which  the  noted  Veta 
Pass  is  one,  are  below  10,000,  while  five  are  above  12,000  feet, 
and  one,  the  Argentine,  is  13,100  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  only 
practicable  in  summer. 

Of  the  great  numbers  of  lakes  scattered  In  the  mountain  val- 
leys, only  one  group,  the  San  Luis  lakes,  situated  In  the  beauti- 
ful San  Luis  Park,  are  below  8,000  feet  In  altitude,  while  the 
Green  Lakes  are  10,000  feet,  and  the  Chicago  Lakes  11,500  feet 
above  the  sea. 

Of  seventy-three  Important  towns  or  locations  In  Colorado, 
only  twelve  are  below  5,000  feet,  and  ten  are  above  10,000  feet, 
the  Present  Help  Mine  on  Mount  Lincoln  being  14,000  feet. 

“ The  parks  of  Colorado  are  a distinct  and  remarkable  feature 
of  this  mountain  system.  They  are  generally  composed  of  level 
or  rolling  lands,  covered  with  luxuriant  grasses,  and  dotted  here 
and  there  with  groves  of  timber.  They  are  walled  about  with 


THE  PARKS  OF  COLORADO. 


197 

mountains  grand  and  high,  and  are  watered  by  streams  of  the 
purest  character.” 

The  North,  Middle,  and  South  Parks,  and  the  San  Luis  Park 
form  an  almost  continuous  belt  across  the  State  from  north  to 
south,  varying  in  width  from  thirty  to  fifty  miles,  and  only  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  mountain  chains.  The  North  Park 
has  a diameter  of  about  thirty  miles,  an  area  of  somewhat  less 
than  1,000  square  miles,  or  over  600,000  acres,  and  an  average 
elevation  of  about  9,000  feet.  The  Middle  is  much  larger,  hav- 
ing a length  of  sixty-five  miles  by  a breadth  of  forty-five  miles, 
an  area  of  about  2,800  square  miles,  or  1,900,000  acres,  and  an 
altitude  of  about  8,000.  The  South  Park  is  closed  in  by  moun- 
tains on  all  sides,  except  the  east ; its  elevation  is  nearly  9,000 
feet,  its  area  about  1,200,000  acres.  The  San  Luis  is  lower 
(about  7,000  feet  above  the  sea),  but  as  large  as  all  the  rest, 
having  an  area  of  about  4,000,000  acres.  The  North  Park  is 
drained  by  the  north  fork  of  the  Platte ; the  Middle  by  tributa- 
ries of  the  Grand  river;  the  South  by  affluents  of  the  South 
Platte,  and  the  San  Luis  by  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  and  its 
tributaries,  and  by  streams  flowing  into  the  San  Luis  lakes. 

Egeria,  Estes,  Animas,  and  Huerfano  Parks  are  also  of  con- 
siderable size  and  of  great  beauty.  Monument  Park  and  the 
Garden  of  the  Gods  adjacent,  are  not  so  much  parks  as  natural 
phenomena  illustrating  the  erosion  of  the  rocks.  It  is  the  opinion 
of  geologists  that  these  parks  were  ages  ago  the  beds  of  vast 
lakes,  but  that  by  some  volcanic  or  other  cosmical  convulsion 
they  were  upheaved  and  drained  of  their  waters,  though  their 
relative  position  to  the  mountains  was  not  disturbed. 

The  mountains  of  Colorado  are  covered  with  pine,  fir,  spruce, 
aspen,  and  other  forest  trees  up  to  elevations  varying  from 
10,800  to  12,800  feot.  Above  the  timber  line  all  is  bleak  and 
barren  rock,  varied  by  the  occasional  presence  of  grass  and 
Alpine  flowers. 

Rivers  and  Streams. — Though  within  the  meridians  of  longi- 
tude which  a few  years  ago  were  declared  to  be  those  of  the 
“ Great  American  Desert  ” par  excellence,  it  cannot  be  justly  said 


* Frank  Fossett’s  “ Colorado.” 


198 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


that  Colorado  is  not  well  watered.  Its  higher  lands  may  require 
some  irrigation,  but  the  streams  are  there  to  irrigate  them.  On 
the  east  of  the  “ Great  Divide  ” the  South  Platte  river,  with  about 
twenty  tributaries  on  each  side,  rises  far  up  among  the  summits 
of  the  Park  Range,  and  pursuing  a north-northeast,  and  then  an 
easterly  course,  drains  ten  of  the  central  and  northeast  counties ; 
while  the  North  Platte,  taking  its  rise  in  the  Rabbit  Ears  Range, 
drains  the  whole  of  the  North  Park.  Returning  to  the  eastern 
part  of  the  State  the  Republican  river,  an  affluent  of  the  Kansas, 
with  its  four  principal  tributaries  drains  the  eastern  portion  of 
Weld,  Arapahoe,  and  Elbert  counties.  But  the  royal  stream 
of  Eastern  Colorado  is  the  Arkansas,  which  rises  in  the  Saguache 
or  Sawatch  range,  its  sources  interlacing  with  those  of  the  Grand 
river,  the  largest  affluent  of  the*  Colorado  of  the  West,  and  in 
its  passage  downwards  to  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  State 
receives  more  than  sixty  tributary  streams.  It  is  a noble  river, 
and,  in  its  passage  through  the  mountain  chains,  cuts  deep  and 
frightful  canons  almost  to  the  base  of  the  mountains  themselves. 
Some  of  its  tributaries,  like  the  Purgatoire,  Big  Sandy  creek. 
Horse  creek,  Apishapa,  Huerfano  river  and  Fontaine  qui Bouille, 
are  themselves  rivers  of  considerable  magnitude.  The  Rio 
(jrande  del  Norte  rises  in  the  San  Juan  Range,  where  it  inter- 
laces with  the  sources  of  the  Gunnison,  Dolores  and  San  Juan 
rivers,  and  flowing  east-southeast  receives  numerous  tribu- 
taries from  San  Juan,  Hinsdale, ‘Rio  Grande,  Saguache,  Conejos, 
and  Costilla  counties,  turns  south  near  Alamosa  and  passes  out 
of  the  State  very  nearly  midway  of  its  southern  border. 

The  western  slope  of  the  “ Great  Divide  ” is  drained  wholly 
(except  for  some  small  streams  which  fall  into  the  San  Luis 
lakes)  by  the  principal  affluents  which  go  to  make  up  the  Rio 
Colorado  of  the  West.  All  of  these  except  the  main  stream 
and  some  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Green  river  have  their  sources 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  Colorado,  and  most  of  them  either 
in  the  Park,  the  Saguache,  the  Elk  or  the  San  Juan  Mountains. 
The  tributaries  of  the  Green  river  are,  the  Yampah  or  Bear  river, 
with  its  branches.  Elk  and  Elkhead  creeks.  Little  Snake  river 
and  Vermillion  creek,  and  the  White  river  with  its  numerous 


CANONS  OF  COLORADO.  I 99 

tributaries.  The  Grand  river  has  its  sources  in  the  North  Park, 
traverses  with  its  tributaries  the  Middle  and  Egeria  Parks,  and 
by  its  affluents,  Eagle  river  and  Roaring  Eork,  distributes  its 
waters  through  all  the  valleys  of  the  northern  Sangre  de  Christo 
Mountains  and  the  Elk  range,  while  its  two  great  affluents,  the 
Gunnison  and  the  Rio  Dolores  and  their  numerous  tributaries, 
the  Uncompahgre,  the  San  Miguel  and  Disappointment  creek, 
drain  all  the  western  slope  lying  between  40°  and  37°  30'  north 
latitude.  In  the  extreme  southwest  the  Rio  San  Juan  and  its 
numerous  branches  drain  the  whole  of  La  Plata,  San  Juan,  Hins- 
dale, and  the  western  part  of  Conejos  counties.  All  these  rivers 
have  scores  of  creeks  and  streams  tributary  to  them,  so  that 
there  are  but  few  square  miles  in  the  State  which  are  destitute 
of  one  or  more  living  streams. 

Mr.  Prank  Eossett,  a recent  able  writer  on  Colorado,  thus 
speaks  of  the  canons  of  these  rivers : 

“The  river  canons,  or  deeply  cut  ravines  that  are  found  in  all 
of  the  more  elevated  portions  of  Colorado,  constitute  a peculiar 
and  striking  feature  of  the  great  Rocky  Mountain  system.  In 
the  countless  ages  of  the  past,  the  waters  of  the  streams  have 
worn  channels  deep  down  into  the  hearts  of  the  mountains, 
leaving  the  perpendicular  granite  or  sandstone  standing  on  either 
side  for  hundreds,  and  in  some  localities  for  thousands  of  feet. 
Nowhere  are  the  grand  and  beautiful  in  Nature  more  effectually 
illustrated  than  in  these  mountain  canons.  The  glories  of 
Boulder,  Clear  Creek,  Cheyenne,  and  Platte  canons,  and  the 
Grand  canon  of  the  Arkansas,  all  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Continental  Divide,  defy  description.  The  walls  of  the  Colorado, 
Gunnison,  and  Uncompahgre  rivers,  in  the  western  part  of  the 
State,  are  still  more  massive  and  wonderful.  In  many  sections 
they  rise  without  a break  or  an  incline  to  heights  of  thousands 
of  feet,  and  along  the  Colorado  continue  in  that  way  with  hardly 
an  outlet  of  any  kind  for  hundreds  of  miles.  The  Grand  canon 
of  the  Gunnison  is  one  of  the  world’s  wonders.  Its  walls  on 
either  side  of  the  stream,  and  bordering  it  for  miles,  are 
usually  not  far  from  300  feet  in  width,  and  are  composed  of 
stratified  rock.  In  places  these  perpendicular  sides,  rising  from 


200 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


the  water  for  distances  of  from  one  to  three  thousand  feet,  ter« 
minate  in  level  summits  surmounted  by  a second  wall  of  pro- 
digious height,  thus  forming  a canon  within  a canon.  Through 
the  chasm  between  these  giant  formations  and  huge  bastions  and 
turrets  one  above  another,  dashes  the  river,  its  surface  white 
with  foam.  The  heights  of  these  perpendicular  canon  walls  and 
their  elevations  with  that  of  the  river  above  sea-level  at  several 
points,  are  as  follows : Level  of  the  Gunnison  at  mouth  of 
Mountain  creek  above  sea-level,  7,200  feet;  of  top  of  wall  or 
plateau  on  north  side,  8,000  feet;  height  of  wall,  1,600  feet; 
height  of  wall  at  point  below  on  east  side,  1,900  feet;  on  west 
side,  1,800  feet;  height  of  wall  in  gneiss  rock,  900  feet.  Some 
distance  below,  the  canon  wall  rises  directly  from  the  river, 
3,000  feet,  of  which  the  1,800  feet  nearest  the  water  is  gneiss 
rock ; total  elevation  of  top  of  wall  or  plateau  above  the  sea, 
9,800  feet.” 

Clhnate. — The  great  elevation  of  most  of  the  places  of  resi- 
dence in  Colorado  insures  a temperate  climate,  rather  too  cool 
than  too  hot.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  most  of  the 
towns,  which  are  5,000  feet  or  thereabouts  above  the  sea,  is  not 
far  from  50° — perhaps  for  a long  term  of  years  48.5°  to  49.3''. 

The  summer  mean  ranges  from  64.6°  to  69.2°,  and  the  winter 
mean  from  31.3°  to  32.8°,  so  that  the  mean  difference  or  range 
does  not  exceed  37°  or  38°.  The  extremes  are  93°  to  99°  max- 
imum in  summer,  with  from  six  to  thirty  days,  according  to  the 
elevation,  above  90°,  and  the  minimum  in  winter  — 3°  to  — 12"^ 
with  an  average  of  six  to  ten  days  with  the  mercury  below  zero. 
There  is,  therefore,  an  extreme  range  in  the  whole  year  of  from 
96°  to  110°. 

The  rainfall  averages  about  18.84  inches,  and  is  increasing. 
The  dry  and  bracing  character  of  the  air  at  5,000  to  6,000  feet 
above  the  sea  renders  the  climate  a desirable  one  for  invalids 
with  weak  lungs,  where  the  disease  is  not  too  far  advanced, 
and  thousands  who  have  resorted  thither  have  been  temporarily, 
and  many  of  them  permanently  benefited.  Generally  it  is  not 
safe  for  persons  who  are  suffering  from  pulmonary  diseases  to  re- 
turn to  the  East,  at  least  not  for  four  or  five  years,  however 


CLIMATE,  SOIL  AND  VEGETATION  OE  COL  OE  A DO. 


201 


complete  may  seem  to  be  the  recovery,  as  the  return  of  the 
disease  at  the  East  is  almost  sure  to  follow  even  a brief  visit 
thither.  Those  whose  lungs  are  diseased  should  also  avoid  the 
higher  elevations.  An  altitude  exceeding  7,000  feet  is  danger- 
ous, because  the  rarefaction  of  the  atmosphere  makes  respira- 
tion more  difficult,  and  will  often  bring  on  hemorrhage  of  the 
lungs.  We  give  below  the  Signal  Service  reports — the  average 
from  three  points,  one'  of  them  the  station  on  the  summit  of 
Pike’s  Peak,  14,147  feet  above  the  sea,  for  the  sake  of  comparison  : 


PLACES. 

Elevation  above 
the  sea. 

Mean  annual 
temperature. 

Mean  spring 
temperature. 

Mean  summer 
temperature. 

Mean  autumn 
temperature. 

Mean  winter 
temperature. 

Maximum 
temperature  in 
summer. 

Number  of  days 

thermometer 

above  90°. 

Minimum 

temperature  in 

winter. 

Number  of  days] 

thermometer  1 

below  zero.  | 

Range  of  year. 

Annual  rainfall. 

Inches. 

Denver 

5.197  ft. 

49-5° 

48.1° 

69.2° 

49-5° 

31-3° 

99° 

32 

—12° 

9 

I jlO 

18.63° 

Colorado  Springs 

6.023  ft. 

47-8° 

45-° 

64.6° 

48.8° 

32.8° 

93° 

6 

above  50°. 

-3° 

2 

96.° 

19.48° 

Pike’s  Peak 

I4.r47  ft 

18.7° 

13.6° 

35.5° 

20  (P 

5 03° 

58.2° 

25 

— 23.6° 

86 

81.8° 

27.82° 

West  of  the  mountains  the  snow  comes  earlier  and  lies  longer 
and  the  mean  temperature  of  winter  is  lower.  The  average 
elevation  of  the  towns  is  higher,  averaging  at  least  8,000  feet. 
These  towns  ar  so  new  that  we  have  not  statistics  of  their 
climate  which  can  be  depended  upon. 

The  quantity  of  the  snow-fall  is  not  great  except  on  the  moun- 
tain ranges  and  higher  elevations.  In  the  mountain  towns  it 
begins  early  and  lies  late,  blocking  the  trails  and  passes  over  the 
mountains,  and  requiring  often  a circuitous  journey  to  reach 
them.  The  railways  now  building  will  be  protected  from  these 
heavy  snows  generally  by  snow  sheds.  The  snow  never  entirely 
disappears  from  altitudes  of  from  12,000  to  14,400  feet. 

Soi7  and  Vegetation. — Of  the  104,500  square  miles  which  con- 
stitute the  area  of  Colorado,  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  very  accu- 
rately what  proportion  should  be  considered  as  arable  land,  for 
several  reasons.  But  a small  portion,  comparatively,  of  the 
State  has  been  surveyed ; only  one-third  in  all,  including  the 
great  area  of  pasturage,  mining  and  timber  lands.  The  great 
amount  of  land  included  in  railroad  grants,  and  the  still  greater 
quantity  in  Indian  reservations,  most  of  which  are  now  in  process 


202 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


of  extinction,  the  uncertainty  whether  land  at  first  regarded  as 
desert,  or,  at  most,  as  sterile  grazing  lands,  may  not  prov^to  be 
arable  land  of  the  very  best  quality  when  irrigated ; and  the 
almost  daily  discovery  of  new  means  of  irrigation.  It  was  roughly 
estimated  in  1878  that  there  were  about  15,000  square  miles  of 
arable  lands,  or  lands  which  would  become  arable  with  irrigation, 
in  the  State.  With  the  great  increase  of  irrigating  canals  con- 
structed since  that  time,  and  the  large  body  of  good  lands  which 
was  thrown  on  the  market  by  the  treaty  with  the  Utes,  con- 
firmed by  Congress  in  June,  1880,  which  set  free  nearly 
1 1,400,000  acres,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  great  parks  which  is 
just  beginning,  there  can  hardly  be  less  than  25,000  square  miles 
entitled  to  that  designation  to-day, or  in  round  numbers,  1 6,000,000 
acres.  Probably  not  more  than  one-fifth  of  this  is  under*  cultiva- 
tion, though  the  amount  is  rapidly  increasing.  “The  soil  at  the 
first  glance  does  not  look  promising.  It  is  composed  of  a fine, 
dark-brown  mould  mixed  with  gravel,  very  compact,  but  at  the 
same  time  very  porous  and  friable.  When  the  gravel  has  been 
completely  decomposed,  or  the  soil  consists  of  fine  dust,  blown 
or  washed  from  the  higher  portions  of  the  plains  (called  bluffs), 
it  inclines  to  clay.  . Near  the  surface  the  earth  is  darker  than 
lower  down,  but  the  quality  is  essentially  the  same  and  very  uni- 
form throughout.  The  soil  is  indeed  so  rich  in  the  mineral  con- 
stituents of  plants,  and  its  depth  so  great,  that  with  a proper 
supply  of  water,  it  yields  larger  and  finer  crops  of  wheat,  barley 
and  oats  than  any  other  State  in  America.  Water,  however,  is 
necessary,  except  in  the  bottoms  of  the  shallower  valleys  trav- 
ersed by  streams ; and  the  cultivable  land  is  thus  limited  to  the 
area  that  the  water  of  the  mountain  streams  will  suffice  to  irri- 
gate. The  agricultural  portion  of  the  State  is  now  mainly  the 
strip  of  land,  ten  to  thirty  miles  broad,  which  extends  from  north 
to  south,  the  whole  width  of  the  State,  along  the  plains  at  the 
base  of  the  foot-hills.  Owing  to  the  general  flatness  and  gradual 
sloping  character  of  the  ground  the  land  can  be  irrigated  at  small 
cost.  Between  Denver  and  the  northern  boundary  of  Colorado, 
six  principal  streams,  besides  the  river  Platte,  flow  from  the  foot- 
hills across  the  plains.  The  water  from  these  streams  is  com 


CANON  OF  THE  COLORADO. 


jRRia AT/ON  IN  COLORADO. 


203 


veyed  in  canals  or  ditches,  which  are  sometimes  as  much  as  fifty 
miles  long.  Some  of  the  smaller  canals  have  been  built  by  co- 
operation among  the  farmers.  In  other  cases  they  are  owned 
by  local  joint-stock  companies,  of  which  the  shares  are  held  prin- 
cipally by  the  farmers  themselves.  The  largest  of  all — the  Lari- 
mer and  Weld  Canal — is  the  property  of  the  Colorado  Mortgage 
Company  of  London.  It  is  fifty  miles  long,  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  carries  water  to  irrigate  40,000 
acres.  The  company  itself  owns  20,000  acres,  which,  with  a right 
in  perpetuity  to  sufficient  water  for  irrigation,  it  is  selling  at  ^13 
to  I15  per  acre.  The  land  is  sold  in  quantities  of  eighty  acres 
and  upwards.  At  this  rate  the  land  Is  freely  purchased,  payment 
being  taken  In  five  installments  for  the  convenience  of  buyers. 
Settlers  on  the  public  lands  can  buy  water  for  ^5  per  acre.  By 
homesteading  a settler  can  become  owner  of  1 60  acres  for  a few 
dollars,  but  he  must  reside  on  it  for  five  years  before  he  can  get 
a title.  The  settler  may  choose  to  pre-empt,  in  which  case  resi- 
dence for  six  months,  together  with  the  execution  of  certain  im- 
provements, gives  a title.  By  pre-emption  the  land  may  be 
obtained  for  $1.25  an  acre  if  distant  from  a railway,  or  $2.50  an 
acre  If  In  the  vicinity  of  a railway.  A settler  can  only  homestead 
or  pre-empt  once.  Railways  are  owners  of  land  along  their 
lines,  in  square  miles  alternately  with  the  public  lands,  which  are 
subject  to  homesteading  and  pre-emption.  Railways  sell  their 
iji.nd  at  prices  varying  from  $3  to  $6  an  acre,  according  to  cir- 
nimstances. 

“ The  undulation  of  the  plains  makes  plowing  and  irrigation 
very  easy.  The  water  Is  supplied  to  the  farmer,  not  directly 
from  the  main  canal,  but  from  a subsidiary  ditch,  formed  with  a 
plow  along  the  surface  of  the  plain,  on  a nearly  uniform  slope. 
The  farmer  excavates  with  his  plow  a similar  smaller  trench 
along  the  top  of  the  land  he  intends  to  plow,  and  then,  making 
breaks  in  the  lower  side,  allows  the  water  to  flow  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  field.  After  two  or  three  days  the  land  is  ready 
for  plowing,  and  the  water  is  turned  off.  After  Irrigation,  a pair 
of  light  horses  will  turn  over  the  soil  at  the  rate  of  an  acre  a 
day,  or  a gang-plow,  drawn  by  four  or  six  horses,  will  break  up 


204 


OUR  IVES  TERN  EMPIRE. 


ten  acres  in  the  same  time.  Cereals  require  to  be  watered  once 
‘or  twice  in  the  season.  The  custom  is  to  break  new  land  in 
August,  September,  and  October,  turning  the  sod  two  or  three 
inches  deep,  and  the  winter  frost  pulverizes  it,  and  makes  it  into 
a good  seed-bed  by  spring.  Old  stubble-land  is  irrigated  in  a 
similar  manner  before  being  plowed,  either  in  autumn  or  spring, 
and  the  seed  is  sown  as  soon  after  plowing  as  possible.  The 
soil,  once  thoroughly  wet,  is  very  retentive  of  moisture,  and  no 
more  irrigation  is  necessary  till  June,  when  the  water  is  again 
turned  over  the  crops  for  a day  or  two.  The  land  is  very  easily 
tilled  and  cleaned,  and  irrigation  is  a simple  process,  as  may  be 
easily  understood  from  the  fact  that  one  man  alone  (exchanging, 
it  may  be,  help  with  a neighbor  in  harvest)  can  cultivate  eighty 
acres  under  crops  in  rotation,  and  that,  too,  without  working  so 
hard  as  a small  farmer  in  this  country  (England).  Self-binding 
reaping  machines  are  in  general  use,  and  give  complete  satis- 
faction. Threshing  machines,  driven  by  steam  or  horse-power, 
are  driven  from  farm  to  farm  as  at  home. 

“ Colorado  produces  all  kinds  of  crops  and  vegetables  grown  in 
England,  with  the  addition  of  many  that  flourish  only  in  a 
warmer  climate,  such  as  Indian  corn,  sugar-beet,  tomatoes,  etc. 
Grapes  and  peaches  ripen  in  the  open  air,  and  in  the  southern 
parts  of  the  State  grapes  and  plums  grow  wild.  Flax  is  also 
‘occasionally  met  with,  growing  wild.  The  wheat  and  barley 
raised  on  the  irrigated  lands  are  as  fine  as  any  in  the  world. 

Geology  aiid  Mineralogy. — Within  the  limits  of  the  State,  on 
-its  varied  surface,  down  the  precipitous  sides  of  its  lofty  moun- 
tains, and  on  the  deeply  eroded  sides  of  its  great  canons  may 
be  found  every  geological  formation  known  on  this  continent. 
In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  plains  of  Eastern  Colorado 
are  tertiary  and  alluvial,  being  formed  largely  of  the  loess  which 
has  for  ages  washed  down  from  the  mountain  summits.  The 
axis  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  ranges  is  eozoic,  and  yet  it  has  been 
so  completely  upheaved  that  the  granite  strata  are  completely 
broken  and  reversed,  and  form  the  surface  rock  of  the  summits 
■of  the  highest  mountains.  In  the  valleys  between  the  ranges 


THE  NATURAL  WONDERS  OE  COLORADO.  2o5 

the  great  parks  are  tertiary.  At  numerous  points  on  the  moun- 
tain sides  and  in  the  canons  the  coal  crops  out,  sometimes  ter- 
tiary lignites,  but  as  often  from  the  upper  coal  measures,  and  in 
the  southwest  from  the  lower  coal  measures.  Sandstones,  lime- 
stones, slates  and  shales  of  every  geologic  age  crop  out,  espe- 
cially in  Western  Colorado,  and  triassic  and  Jurassic  rocks  appear 
both  in  the  San  Juan  country  and  in  the  region  lying  between 
Pueblo  and  the  Spanish  peaks.  In  the  vicinity  of  many  of  the 
coal  beds  the  rocks  are  cretaceous ; while  the  Devonian  and 
Silurian  systems  are  largely  represented  in  the  south  and  south- 
west. In  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  some  of  the  affluents  of  the  Grand  river,  there 
are  evidences  of  extensive  volcanic  action. 

The  erosive  action  of  large  streams  having  a rapid  descent 
and  perhaps  also  of  glaciers  (though  this  is  not  quite  settled) 
has  nowhere  produced  such  remarkable  results  as  in  Colorado. 
It  is  not  only  manifest  in  those  deep  canons  which  are  only 
rivalled  in  Arizona,  but  in  such  wonderful  productions  as  the 
“ City  of  the  Gods,”  in  the  White  river  region,  in  the  northwest 
part  of  Summit  county,  where  a tract  large  enough  for  a city  is 
cut  into  the  semblance  of  cathedrals,  castles,  towers,  and  dwell- 
ings, in  ruins  indeed,  but  glorious  in  their  ruin — the  spires,  domes, 
terraces  and  many  storied  temples  set  in  such  regular  order  and 
with  such  broad  avenues  between  that  it  seems  impossible  that 
it  should  be  other  than  the  work  of  human  hands ; or  the  similar 
though  less  extensive  wonders  of  Monument  Park,  Talbott  Hill 
and  the  Bottle  Rocks ; or  the  remarkable  arrangement  of  the 
rocks  (which  may  or  may  not  have  been  the  result  of  erosion) 
in  the  “ Garden  of  the  Gods or  the  Royal  Gorge,  or  the  Grape 
Creek  and  Temple  canons,  or  the  Grand  canon  of  the  Arkansas, 
and  farther  west  the  Great  canon  of  the  Gunnison. 

For  an  interesting  account  of  some  of  these  wonders,  especially 
those  of  Fremont  county,  as  well  as  of  the  remarkable  bones  of 
the  gigantic  Camarasuras  and  other  fossils,  reptiles  and  mam- 
mals of  the  Jurassic  period  which,  in  size  as  well  as  geologic  age, 
surpass  all  previous  discoveries,  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  J.  G. 
Pangborn,  author  of  the  “ New  Rocky  Mountain  Tourist,”  a part 


2o6 


UcK  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


of  whose  very  vivid  description  of  a tour  through  this  true  won- 
derland we  here  introduce  to  our  readers. 

“ Rattling  over  the  bridge  spanning  the  Arkansas  at  the  city’s* 
feet,  we  speed  on  through  clumps  of  richly  foliaged  trees,  and  in 
a few  moments  are  at  the  entrance  of  the  canon,  catching  a 
glimpse,  just  as  we  enter  between  its  towering  walls,  of  the 
Grand  canon  of  the  Arkansas  and  the  cosy-looking  bath-houses 
at  the  springs  near  by.  A quick  word  of  wonder  at  the  height 
and  the  closeness  of  the  walls,  a sharp  turn  of  the  road,  and  look- 
ing back,  the  way  is  lost  by  which  we  came.  Here  in  the  solitary 
mountains  we  are  alone.  No  world  behind ; no  world  before. 
Turn  upon  turn,  and  new  walls  rise  up  so  abruptly  before  us  as 
to  cause  an  involuntary  cry  of  terror,  soon  relieved,  however,  as 
our  excited  senses  become  more  familiar  with  the  new  tension 
upon  them.  Awe  still  holds  us  bonden  slaves,  but  the  eye  drinks 
in  such  beauty  as  fairly  intoxicates  the  soul.  On  either  hand  the 
walls  loom  up  until  only  the  slender  opal  of  a narrow  strip  of 
sky  forms  exquisite  contrast  with  the  pine-covered  heights. 
Rifled  boulders  every  now  and  then  wall  in  the  road  on  the 
river  side,  their  base  washed  by  the  creek,  wild  and  beautiful 
in  its  whirl  and  roar.  Here  the  perpendicular  piles  of  rock  are 
covered  with  growths  of  trees  that  ascend  in  exact  line  with  the 
wall  and  cast  their  shadows  on  the  road  below.  Nature’s  grape- 
vines trail  along  the  ground  and  cling  around  the  trunks  of  the 
trees,  hanging  like  Arcadian  curtains  and  making  bowers  of  the 
most  exquisite  character  imaginable.  Between  these,  we  catch 
bewitching  glances  of  the  creek  on  its  merry,  tempestuous  way 
to  the  Arkansas,  its  sparkling  surface  throwing  back  rapid  re- 
flections of  masses  of  green  foliage  and  trailing  vines.  Deep 
pools  give  back  the  blue  of  the  cloudless  sky,  and  as  base  accom- 
paniments come  in  the  dark  shadows  of  the  canon  walls  with  their 
sharply  drawn  ridges  and  truncated  cones.  Here  and  there,  all 
along  the  wild  way,  are  rushing  cascades,  tortuous  twists  of  the 
stream,  gayly  lichened  or  dark  beetling  rocks,  mossy  nooks  or 
glowing  lawns,  and  overhead  the  cottonwoods  mingling  their 
rare  autumnal  splendors  of  red  and  gold  with  the  sombre  green 


* Canon  Citv. 


GRAPE  CREEK  CANON. 


207 


of  pine  and  cedar.  The  canon  is  beyond  question  the  most 
beautiful  in  marvellous  coloring,  wondrous  splendor  of  foliage, 
picturesque  cascades  and  winding  streams  of  any  in  Colorado. 
The  Grand  canon  of  the  Arkansas  is  deeper,  but  it  is  awful  as 
seen  from  the  only  point  of  view,  that  from  the  top,  and  the  sen- 
sations caused  in  strongest  of  contrast  with  those  experienced  in 
Grape  Creek  canon.  The  walls  of  the  latter  are  so  gorgeous  a 
variety  of  colors  as  to  fairly  bewilder  with  their  splendor : red — 
from  the  darkest  tinge  of  blood  to  the  most  delicate  shades  of 
pink ; green — from  the  richest  depths  to  the  rarest  hues  of  the 
emerald ; blue — from  the  opal  to  the  deepest  sea,  variegated 
until  almost  defying  the  rainbow  to  excel  in  exquisite  blending. 
These  glorious  transitions  of  color  meet  one  at  every  turn,  and 
the  contrast  formed  every  now  and  then  by  tremendous  walls  of 
bare,  black  rock,  or  broad  seams  of  iron  ore  set  in  red  or  green, 
render  all  the  more  striking  the  singular  beauty  of  the  canon. 
Over  the  walls  on  either  side,  the  grapevine,  from  which  the 
canon,  takes  its  name,  climbs  in  wonderfully  rich  profusion,  and 
in  autumn,  when  the  leaves  become  so  delicately  tinted  and  the 
vines  hang  thick  with  their  purple  fruit,  the  effect  is  something  to 
call  to  mind  but  never  to  describe.  Added  to  the  indescribable 
beauty  of  the  vines  are  the  many-colored  mosses  which  paint  the 
rocks  in  infinite  variety  of  hue,  ofttimes  growing  so  high  and  rank  as 
to  reach  to  the  very  pinnacle  of  the  topmost  rocks  and  fringe  their 
craggy  brows  so  lavishly  as  to  render  them  almost  symmetrical 
in  appearance  as  seen  below.  At  different  points  these  moss- 
covered  walls  rise  to  the  height  of  1,000  feet,  and  so  completely 
do  they  hem  one  in  on  all  sides  that  with  but  slight  stretch  of  im- 
agination the  place  could  be  viewed  from  below  as  a gigantic, 
moss-covered  bucket,  but  one  that  never  ‘hung  in  the  well’ 
Just  above  Temple  canon,  and  where  Grape  creek  enters  the 
canon  of  its  name,  the  walls  are  exceedingly  high  and  precipitous, 
and  in  the  coolest  nook  of  their  shadows,  where  sunlight  can 
never  reach,  is  a quiet,  placid  pool  of  water  clearer  than  a crys- 
tal, and  so  faithfully  reflecting  back  the  curiously  and  brilliantly 
colored  rocks  overhanging  it,  as  to  have  gained  the  name  of 
Painted  Rock  Pool.  It  is  a very  gem  in  itself,  and  its  setting 


2o8 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


and  the  rare  grandeur  of  the  surroundings,  is  well  in  keeping. 
Those  visiting  the  canon  should  not  fail  to  follow  up  the  course 
of  the  creek  from  the  point  where  it  debouches  into  the  canon. 
It  will  have  to  be  done  on  foot,  but  the  wholly  unexpected  sur- 
prises of  the  hour  or  two’s  ramble  will  more  than  repay  the  ex- 
ertion. The  walls  of  the  sides  of  the  parent  canon  are  fully 
1,500  feet  in  height,  and  so  narrow  that  the  tall  pines  and  cot- 
tonwoods keep  the  gorge  in  a tender  half-light,  broken  at  mid- 
day by  glaring  rays  that  give  a magical  charm  to  the  scene.  On 
all  sides  from  points  in  the  walls  of  rock,  tufts  of  grass  and  blue- 
bells grow,  forming,  with  the  grapevines,  most  pleasing  pictures 
in  contrast  with  many-tinted  rocks,  in  the  crevices  of  which  their 
roots  have  found  nourishment.  The  walls  are  of  almost  as  many 
colors  as  there  are  sharp  turns  in  the  creek’s  course,  and  rarr, 
and  perfect  in  beauty  is  the  amphitheatre  of  black  rock  with 
pearly-white  veins  running  in  every  direction,  the  whole  over- 
hung by  climbing  vines  and  their  pendant  berries.  Just  at  the 
entrance  to  Temple  canon  is  a little  grove  of  cottonwoods. 
Their  pendant  swinging  boughs  meet  in  perfect  arches  over- 
head, and  the  profusion  of  their  polished,  brilliant  leaves  renders 
complete  the  most  charming  of  bowers  in  which  to  take  the  noon- 
day lunch  and  prepare  for  the  climb  into  Temple  canon,  which 
must  be  done  on  foot.  Temple  is  a side  canon,  with  entrance 
from  Grape  Creek  canon,  some  four  and  a half  miles  from  Canon 
City,  and  was  discovered  but  a year  or  two  ago. 

“ The  climb  is  not  steep,  though  rather  rough,  especially  to 
effect  an  entrance  into  the  Temple  proper,  which  is  to  the  right 
of  the  little  canon,  and  can  only  be  accomplished  by  clambering 
over  several-huge  boulders,  which,  if  removed,  would  render  the 
illusion  of  a temple  and  stairway  all  the  more  striking.  Once 
passing  in  through  the  great  rifts  of  rock,  for  all  the  world  like 
the  stairway  to  some  grand  place  of  amusement,  the  body  of  the 
Temple  is  reached,  and  to  the  tourist’s  astonishment,  before  him 
is  a stage  with  overhanging  arch,  with  ‘flats’  and  ‘flies,’  with 
dressing-rooms  on  either  side,  and  a scene  already  set  as  if  for 
some  grand  tableau.  If  so  intensely  realistic  from  the  parquet, 
as  the  broad  circling  floor  might  aptly  be  termed,  or  from  the 


TEMPLE  CANON  AND  THE  TEMPLE. 


209 


parquet  or  dress-circles,  as  the  higher  ledges  would  suggest,  the 
clamber  up  to  the  stage  itself  renders  it  all  the  more  so,  for 
there  is  found  ample  room  for  a full  dramatic  or  operatic  com- 
pany to  disport  upon,  while  in  the  perpendicular  ledges  and 
caves  on  either  side,  twenty-five  to  thirty  people  might  retire  and 
not  be  observed  from  the  body  of  the  hall.  The  stage  is  at  the 
least  thirty  feet  deep,  and  some  sixty  to  seventy  broad ; the  arch^ 
above  fully  one  hundred  feet  from  the  floor  of  the  canon,  the 
stage  itself  being  about  forty  feet  above  the  floor.  The  arch  is 
almost  as  smooth  and  perfectly  proportioned  as  if  fashioned  by 
the  hand  of  man,  and  during  the  wet  season  the  water  from  a 
stream  above  falls  in  a great  broad  sheet  over  its  face  to  the 
floor  of  the  canon  below.  At  such  times  the  effect  from  the 
stage  of  the  Temple  is,  as  can  be  imagined,  exceedingly  fasci- 
nating, for  there,  entirely  protected  from  the  water,  one  looks 
through  the  silvery  sheen  out  upon  the  scene  below.  Upon  the 
rear  wall  of  the  stage  quite  an  aperture  has  been  hewn  out  by 
some  action,  and  the  shape  it  is  left  in  is  peculiarly  suggestive 
of  tableaux  preparation.  Away  up  in  the  very  highest  crevice 
under  the  arch  a pair  of  eagles  have  mated  for  years,  and  though 
most  daring  efforts  have  been  made  to  reach  the  nest  none  have 
succeeded.  The  coming  of  visitors  is  almost  invariably  the 
occasion  of  a flight  from  the  nest,  and  breaking  in  so  suddenly 
upon  the  supernatural  stillness  of  the  place  is  apt  to  cause  a 
shock  to  the  timid  not  readily  forgotten.  There  is  absolutely 
not  a solitary  sign  of  vegetation  about  the  Temple ; all  is  bleak, 
bare  and  towering  walls,  and  a more  weird  spot  to  visit  cannot 
possibly  be  imagined.  Coming  out  from  the  Temple  itself  the 
tourist  should  by  all  means  clamber  up  to  one  of  the  lofty  pinna- 
cles in  the  adjoining  canon,  for  the  sight  from  them  down  upon 
the  mighty  masses  of  rock  below,  the  cottonwoods,  the  stream 
in  Grape  Creek  canon  and  the  lofty  walls  beyond  is  one  to  be 
treasured  up  among  the  brightest  recollections  of  the  tour. 

“ One  could  spend  days  in  Grape  Creek  and  Temple  canons 
alone,  but  our  week  demands  that  we  should  spend  the  second 
day  in  Oak  Creek  canon,  with  its  wonderful  formations  of  arches, 
deep  tints  of  evergreens  and  wealth  of  wild  flowers. 

41 


210 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


“ Oak  Creek  canon  is  left  with  unfeigned  regret,  and  as  we 
toil  up  the  ascent  on  the  return  trip  we  cast  many  glances  back  to 
aid  memory  in  fixing  its  beauties  upon  the  mind.  A couple  of. 
miles  over  a road  the  tamest  imaginable,  after  the  three  miles 
of  down  grade,  brings  us  to  the  base  of  Curiosity  Hill,  well 
named,  as  is  speedily  proven  by  the  discovery  of  all  sorts  of  odd 
and  beautiful  little  specimens  of  ribbon  moss  and  linear  agate 
crystals  and  the  like.  The  surface  of  the  hill  is  one  vast  field  of 
curiosities,  and  so  plentiful  and  varied  are  they  that  even  those 
usually  wholly  indifferent  to  such  things  soon  find  themselves 
vying  with  the  most  enthusiastic  in  exclamations  of  delight  upon 
finding  some  particularly  attractive  specimen.  By  blasting, 
large  bodies  of  the  most  perfect  crystals  are  obtained,  invariably 
bedded  in  ribbon  agate  of  the  most  beautiful  colors  and  shapes, 
and  polishing  readily,  they  form  beyond  all  comparison  the  love- 
liest of  . cabinet  attractions.  Many  very  valuable*  specimens  of 
blood  agate  have  been  found  on  Curiosity  Hill,  and  for  agates 
of  all  hues  and  forms  it  is  possibly  the  most  satisfactory  field  for 
the  specimen-seeker  in  Southern  Colorado.  Trotting  homeward 
we  watch  the  blazing  splendor  of  the  sunset  upon  the  lofty  heads 
of  the  rocky  monarchs  around  us,  while  the  cool  twilight  of  the 
open  park  between  us  and  Canon  City  envelops  all  about  our 
road. 

“Next  morning  we  are  off  for  Oil  Creek  canon,  which  is  wholly 
different  from  others  seen  thus  far.  The  windings  of  the  road 
in  following  the  heavily-wooded  stream  are  decidedly  of  a ro- 
mantic character,  running  now  through  a bewitching  little  grove, 
and  the  next  moment  joining  with  the  merry  waters  and  keeping 
them  close  company  until  another  cluster  of  aspens  or  firs  causes 
a separation  of  sight  only,  for  the  music  of  the  foaming  stream 
comes  to  us  through  the  leaves,  thus  rendering  the  meeting  all 
the  more  delightful.  A half  mile  from  the  mouth  of  the  canon 
we  come  upon  the  oil  wells  from  which  the  stream  takes  its 
name,  and  about  which  its  perfect  purity  is  polluted  by  the  pe- 
troleum that  lies  thick  upon  its  surface.  Some  considerable 
surface  work  has  been  done  at  the  wells  in  the  way  of  tubing 
and  the  like,  and  they  have  been  yielding  more  or  less  oil  for 


THE  TWIN  FORTS. 


2 I I 


the  past  fifteen  years.  Preparations  are  now  being  made,  how- 
ever, for  boring  for  flowing  wells,  and  the  probabilities  are  that 
more  oil  will  be  taken  from  them  this  year  than  ever  before  since 
the  first  discovery.  Beyond  the  wells  the  road  winds  around  and 
about  in  enticing  proximity  to  the  stream,  and  then  leaving  it, 
winds  high  above,  crossing  picturesque  bridges,  and  finally 
emerges  into  the  open  known  as  Oil  Creek  Park,  hemmed  in  on 
all  sides  by  ranges  of  sandstone  that  show  a countless  succession 
of  rock  sculptures,  the  effect  heightened  by  the  brilliancy  and  va- 
riety of  the  coloring.  High  up  on  the  ridges  are  the  crumbling 
ruins  of  castellated  battlements,  formidable  bastions  suggestive 
of  frowning  guns,  lofty  and  imposing  sally-ports,  portcullis,  moats 
and  drawbridges.  Great  cliffs  have  fallen,  and  avalanches  of 
rock  have  plunged  their  way  down  the  hillsides;  yet  here  and 
there  and  everywhere  upon  the  walls  stand  the  grim  battlements, 
as  if  defying  wind,  storm  and  time.  The  most  imposing  of 
these  tremendous  ruins  are  the  Twin  Forts,  standing  upon  the 
very  verge  of  a precipitous  wall  of  500  feet  of  alternate  layers 
of  creamy  yellow  and  brilliant  red.  One  looms  up  a hundred 
feet  or  more  above  the  wall,  but  the  other  is  sadly  battered  and 
rapidly  crumbling  away.  Along  the  wall  are  numberless 
towers  of  rock  worn  by  the  action  of  the  elements  into  fantastic 
shapes,  and  many  of  them  looking  as  if  the  breath  of  a child 
would  topple  them  over.  Progressing  on  through  the  park  we 
fancy  in  each  transformation  of  rock  some  familiar  thing,  while 
the  mighty  tiers  extending  toward  us  ofttimes  call  vividly  to  mind 
the  bulwarks  of  great  ships  of  the  sea  stranded  here  to  be  worn 
away  to  dust.  Directly  ahead  of  us,  as  we  near  the  centre  of 
the  park,  we  catch  full  glimpses  of  new  and  singular  rock  sculpture, 
the  entire  south  end  of  the  park  showing  tier  upon  tier  of  rock 
so  striking  in  resemblance  to  stockades  and  outlying  fortifica- 
tions as  to  cause  one  to  involuntarily  seek  not  only  for  the  colors, 
but  the  soldiers  defending  them.  Back  of  the  stockades,  stern, 
dark  and  cold,  rises  Signal  Mountain,  and  still  back  of  it  the  long, 
wave-like  lines  and  great  snowy  domes  of  the  Sangre  de  Christo 
range,  their  stupendous  proportions  dwarfing  all  below  into  little- 


ness. 


212 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


“ The  road,  as  it  nears  the  head  of  the  park,  abruptly  dashes 
into  a thickly  grown  grove  of  pifion  trees.  We  halt  for  a mo- 
ment to  get  a full  view  of  the  largest  pihon  tree  in  Colorado, 
and  probably  in  the  country,  and  after  entertaining  something  of 
a contempt  for  the  scraggy  little  trunk  of  the  average  pifion 
tree,  it  is  quite  refreshing  to  behold  one  fully  three  feet  in  di- 
ameter, though  all  the  more  uncouth  and  ugly  for  its  unwonted 
circumference.  The  pinons  bear  extraordinary  quantities  of  the 
sweetest  little  nuts,  but  outside  of  this  they  are  of  no  possible 
worth.  Around  the  sharpest  and  steepest  of  curves,  a dash 
across  the  madly-surging  stream,  and  a helter-skelter  scramble 
up  a low  but  exceedingly  rocky  ascent,  and  we  are  at  the  mouth 
of  Marble  Cave,  so  near  in  fact  as  to  barely  escape  falling  into  it 
in  looking  for  it.  The  ragged,  jagged  crevice  by  which  the  cav^.* 
is  entered  is  anything  but  enticing,  and  the  sensation  experienced 
as  one’s  head  is  all  there  is  left  above  ground  is  far  from  the 
pleasantest. 

“ The  descent  is  almost  perpendicular  for  a hundred  feet  or 
more,  and  the  staircase  formed  by  the  broken  ledges  on  either 
side  of  the  chasm  far  from  soothing  to  one’s  nerves,  especially  as 
all  the  lights  obtained  are  the  meagre  glintings  which  steal 
through  the  three-cornered  opening  above  and  struggle  faintly 
half  way  to  the  bottom  of  the  rift  of  rocks.  Stumbling  over  un- 
seen boulders,  and  barely  escaping  serious  contact  with  the  en- 
compassing walls,  we  grope  to  the  point  where  our  guide  has 
kindled  a fire,  and  find  it  the  intersection  of  the  two  main  halls 
of  the  cave.  The  ghastly  flare  thrown  upon  the  walls  by  the 
burning  pine  chills  us  to  the  bone,  and  a tremulous  inspection 
of  the  situation  adds  no  warmth.  We  are  in  a strange  and 
awful  rift  in  some  buried  mountain,  the  walls  so  narrow  that  our 
elbows  touch  on  either  side,  and  so  weird  and  terrific  in  height, 
as  seen  through  the  heavily-rolling  smoke,  as  to  look  ten  times 
the  1 50  feet  our  guide  informs  us  is  the  distance  to  the  roof. 
The  pine  burns  brighter,  the  smoke  grows  thicker,  but  we  press 
on,  now  crawling  on  all-fours  into  some  wondrous  chamber  of 
stalactite  and  stalagmite,  and  anon  tugging  up  a strand  of  rope 
over  frightful  boulders  that  have  fallen  from  the  dizzy  height 


MARBLE  CAVE  AND  TALBOTT  HILL. 


213 


above,  to  obstruct  man  in  learning  the  secrets  of  this  awful  con- 
vulsion of  nature.  We  penetrate  into  Satan’s  Bower,  we  look 
shudderingly  into  his  Punch  Bowl,  and  gasp  as  we  throw  our- 
selves into  his  Arm-Chair.  We  draw  longest  of  breaths  in 
Queen’s  Grotto,  and  the  shortest  when  thoughts  of  the  way  back 
over  those  fearful  rocks  crowd  in  and  demand  consideration. 
Certainly  the  clear  blue  sky  never  was  half  so  lovely  as  when  we 
finally  stand  under  it  again.  The  cave  is,  as  its  name  implies, 
encompassed  by  marble  walls,  and  the  specimens  of  marble 
brought  from  its  innermost  recesses,  as  seen  in  the  full  glare  of 
the  sun,  are  exceedingly  beautiful  in  their  mottled  surface  of  red 
and  white.  The  marble  is  susceptible  of  the  highest  and  richest 
polish,  and  parties  in  Canon  City  use  it  for  artistic  as  well  as 
practical  purposes.  All  about  the  hill,  from  the  low  crest  of 
which  the  cave  is  entered,  are  the  finest  specimens  of  jasper, 
agate  and  shell  rock,  and  not  far  distant  are  immense  trees 
petrified  to  solid  rock,  and  where  broken  often  showing  beauti- 
ful veins  of  agate  and  crystals.  On  the  return  trip  we  take 
more  notice  of  the  cosy  and  comfortable  farm-houses  scattered 
throughout  the  park,  and  become  much  interested  in  the  details 
of  the  yield  of  grain — principally  wheat — secured  through  the 
system  of  irrigation  practised  so  extensively  in  the  State ; in  fact, 
no  grain  whatever  can  be  successfully  cultivated  in  Colorado 
without  irrigation.  Midway  in  the  park  we  pull  up  at  the  pleas- 
ant home  of  the  gentleman  who  is  to  show  us  to  the  top  of  Tal- 
bott Hill,  where  Professor  Marsh,  of  Yale  College,  and  Professor 
Cope,  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia,  have 
parties  at  work  exhuming  the  recently  discovered  bones  of  ani- 
mals, compared  to  which  in  proportions  and  importance  the 
mastodon  sinks  to  insignificance.  We  at  once  leave  the  road 
and  make  direct  for  the  wall  of  blood-red  rock  on  the  west  side 
of  the  park,  and  a short  drive  bringing  us  to  its  base,  we  alight. 
Reaching  the  summit,  the  long-drawn  breath  of  relief  is  half 
choked  by  the  indescribable  magnificence  of  the  view,  and  for 
the  first  time  we  appreciate  the  sublimity  and  grandeur  of  the 
Sangre  de  Christo  range.  A few  more  steps  and  we  are  at  the 
tent  of  Professor  Cope’s  party,  and  all  within  and  without  is 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


214 

heaped'Up  bones,  rocks  now,  and  many  of  them  so  perfectly 
agatized  that  at  a casual  glance  it  would  stagger  any  but  a 
scientist’s  belief  that  they  were  ever  covered  with  flesh.  As 
seen,  here,  however,  it  is  so  palpably  apparent  that  the  seeming 
rock  and  agate  are  bone  as  to  leave  no  room  for  shadow  of 
doubt.  Before  us  are  perfect  parts  of  skeletons  so  huge  as  to 
prepare  one  for  the  belief  that  Noah’s  Ark  was  a myth;  sections 
of  vertebrae  three  feet  in  width  ; ribs  fifteen  feet  long  ; thigh-bones 
over  six  feet  in  length — and  the  five  or  six  tons  of  bones  thus 
far  shipped  East  comprising  only  the  parts  of  three  animals.  In 
one  pit  the  diameter  of  the  socket  of  the  vertebrae  measured  fif- 
teen inches,  width  of  spinal  process  forty-one  inches,  and  depth 
of  vertebrae  twenty-nine  inches.  In  another  place  there  was  a 
thigh-bone  six  feet  and  two  inches  in  length ; a section  of  back- 
bone lying  just  as  the  monster  rolled  over  and  died,  with  eleven 
ribs  attached,  the  back-bone  twenty  feet  long  and  from  sixteen 
to  thirty  inches  deep,  and  the  ribs  five  to  eight  feet  in  length  and 
six  inches  broad.  Just  s'howing  upon  the  surface  was  a part  of 
a thigh-bone  twenty-two  inches  in  width  and  thirty  in  length,  and 
near  it  a nine-foot  rib  four  inches  in  diameter,  a foot  wide  at  six 
feet,  and  where  it  articulated  with  the  vertebrae,  twenty-three 
and  a half  inches  in  width.  The  entire  rib  was  fifteen  feet  in 
length.  All  over  the  hill  we  come  upon  little  piles  of  broken 
bones  which  will  require  days  of  patient  labor  and  skillful  hand- 
ling to  properly  set  in  place.  The  first  discovery  of  the  fossils 
was  made  in  April  last  by  a young  graduate  of  Oberlin  College, 
who,  teaching  a country  school  in  the  park  five  days  in  the  week, 
spent  his  Saturdays  about  the  hills  hunting  deer,  and  occasion- 
ally getting  a shot  at  a grizzly.  Immediately  upon  satisfying 
himself  of  the  character  of  the' discovery,  the  young  man  wrote 
to  his  old  Professor  in  Ohio,  and  subsequently  to  Professor  Cope, 
of  Philadelphia.  Hardly  had  the  latter  organized  his  party  of 
exploration  before  Professor  Marsh  had  his,  under  the  leadership 
of  Professor  Mudge,  of  Kansas,  duly  equipped,  and  by  the  mid- 
dle of  May  both  parties  were  actively  engaged  excavating, 
setting  up  and  preparing  for  shipment  the  bones  which  Professor 
Marsh  declares  are  seven  million  years  old. 


GIGANTIC  CHARACTER  OF  FOSSILS. 


2i5 


“The  first  animal  discovered  was  of  entirely  new  genus  and 
species  in  scientific  circles,  and  was  named  the  camarasuras  su- 
premus,  from  the  chamber  of  caverns  in  the  centres  of  the 
vertebrae.  Of  the  first  petrifactions  exhumed  was  a femur  or 
thigh-bone  six  feet  in  length,  scapular  or  shoulder-blade  five  and 
a half  feet  long,  sacrum,  or  the  part  of  the  backbone  over  the 
hips — corresponding  to  four  vertebrae  united  in  one — forty  inches. 
Vertebrae  immediately  in  front  of  this  measured  in  elevation 
two  feet  six  inches,  and  the  spread  of  the  diapophyses  was  three 
feet.  Professor  Hayden,  the  widely-known  chief  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  upon  visiting  this  place  and  inspecting 
these  and  other  parts  of  the  animal,  declared  it  his  conviction 
that  the  beast  must  have  been  fully  a hundred  feet  in  length. 
The  thigh-bone,  measuring  some  six  feet,  stood  over  the  hips 
eighteen  to  twenty  feet.  The  animal  was  undoubtedly  shorter  of 
front  than  of  hind  legs,  and  Professor  Marsh  thinks  it  had  the 
power  to  raise  up  like  a kangaroo  on  its  hind  legs  and  browse 
off  the  leaves  of  the  trees  from  sixty  to  eighty  feet  in  height. 
The  professor  also  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  ‘critter’  fed 
entirely  upon  grass  and  leaves,  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck  being 
some  twenty-one  inches  in  length,  and  the  spread  of  the 
diapophyses  three  feet,  this  being  understood  of  cervical  vertebrae. 
The  skeleton  is  not  completely  exhumed,  though  between  7,500 
and  8,000  pounds  of  bone  have  been  shipped  to  Professor  Cope. 
A part  of  the  jaw  of  a laelaps  trihedrodon,  ten  inches  long,  and 
containing  eight  teeth  varying  from  five  to  eight  inches  in  length, 
has  also  been  shipped.  Recently  a leg  bone  of  this  same  animal 
was  exhumed  and  found  to  measure  a little  over  four  feet,  and 
with  a portion  of  the  head  all  crushed  into  small  pieces,  sent  on 
to  the  professor.  A part  of  the  femur  of  another  animal  has 
been  found,  measuring  six  feet,  but  somewhat  lighter  than  the 
others.  The  vertebrae  are  three  feet  six  inches  in  eleavtion, 
showing  a very  tall  brute,  but  not  so  heavy  as  the  camarasuras. 
When  found,  it  was  lying  on  the  right  side  with  vertebrae  and 
ribs  of  that  side  in  place,  the  ribs  measuring  over  six  feet  in 
length,  and  the  prongs  where  they  join  the  back  fifteen  inches  in 
width.  Many  of  the  bones  of  the  camarasuras  are  misplaced 


OUI^  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


216 

and  broken  up,  quite  a pile  being  found  at  the  spot  where 
several  of  the  teeth  of  the  trihedrodon  were  discovered,  thus  indi- 
cating the  preying  of  the  one  upon  the  other.  While  the  general 
estimate  of  the  age  of  these  huge  fossils  among  American  geol- 
ogists is  seven  million  years,  English  scientists  declare  them 
fourteen  million  years  old.  Both  the  camarasuras  and  the 
trihedrodon  were  of  the  Jurassic  period,  being  found  in  beds, 
which,  according  to  Professor  Marsh,  correspond  with  the 
Wealden  beds  of  England.  All  this  section  of  the  country  must 
have  been  a plain  when  so  much  of  Colorado  was  covered  by  an 
ocean,  and  before  the  mountains  were  formed.  The  fossils  are 
found  in  rock  long  upheaved,  its  character  now  a sort  of  shale  or 
marlite,  which  upon  being  dug  out  and  exposed  to  the  air  crumbles 
to  pieces.  In  most  instances  it  is  free  from  bone  decay,  the  parts 
of  animals  taken  out  being  remarkable  for  their  clean  and  per- 
fect solidity.  Marsh  and  Cope  agree  that  the  camarasuras  was 
the  largest  and  most  bulky  animal  capable  of  progress  on  land 
of  which  we  have  any  knowledge,  it  being  very  much  larger  than 
the  mastodon,  which  was  of  a much  later  period. 

“Professor  Mudge,  with  his  party,  is  working  about  three- 
quarters  of  a mile  distant  from  Professor  Cope’s  camp,  and  very 
recently  discovered  portions  of  an  animal  of  even  more  monstrous 
proportions  than  those  already  referred  to,  and  of  entirely  dif- 
ferent genus  and  species  from  either.  The  explorations  of  the 
Marsh  and  Cope  parties  will  be  pushed  with  all  possible  vigor, 
the  entire  scientific  world  being  intensely  interested  not  only  in 
the  work  here  on  Talbott  Hill,  but  in  the  setting  up  of  the  gi- 
gantic skeletons  at  Yale  College  and  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences  at  Philadelphia.  Excursions  from  several  of  the  leading 
colleges  to  the  scene  of  the  discoveries  are  planned  for  the  sum- 
mer, and  the  season’s  work  promises  to  add  to  the  lively  in- 
terest in  scientific  circles. 

“ The  next  morning  our  way  is  southward  ten  miles  or  more  to 
the  coal  mines,  stopping  at  the  iron  spring  a little  over  three  miles 
from  town.  It  is  up  a short,  dry  gulch  leading  off  from  the  road, 
and  quite  peculiar,  inasmuch  as  the  water  springs  from  and  has 
worn  its  tiny  channel  up  the  very  edge  of  a long,  thin  ridge  that 


DEPOSnS  OP  CANON  C/J). 


217 


juts  out  into  the  gulch.  Over  the  face  of  the  ridge  the  water 
has  scattered  its  iron  sediment  with  lavish  freedom,  but  only  in 
this  is  there  anything  that  to  the  eye  indicates  aught  but  spotless 
purity  in  the  wonderful  clearness  of  the  spring.  To  the  taste, 
however,  the  iron  at  once  asserts  itself,  and  the  water  is  so 
strongly  charged  with  it  as  to  render  it  the  healthiest  of  bever- 
ages. We  drink  our  fill,  and  are  off  for  the  coal  mines.  An 
hour,  and  we  are  bowling  along  in  a coal  truck  attached  to  a 
blind  mule,  through  a vein  of  solid  coal  something  over  five  feet 
in  diameter.  It  is  a weird  ride,  this  mile  or  more  into  the  inky 
bowels  of  the  earth,  the  faint  shadows  from  our  diminutive  lamps 
causing  a ghastly  effect  not  at  all  lessened  by  the  blackness  of 
the  coal  on  either  side  and  overhead.  Every  few  feet  we  peer 
into  the  dusky  depths  of  the  apparently  unending  series  of  side 
chambers,  catching  quick  glimpse  of  the  little  fire-bugs,  as  the 
miners  look  to  be,  as  we  pass  so  swiftly  on.  We  see  not  the 
forms  of  the  men,  their  faces,  nor  their  hands,  only  the  lamp- 
wicks’  sickly  flaring  from  the  unseen  hats.  Every  now  and  then 
piles  of  powder  in  canisters  almost  block  up  the  entrance  to  the 
chambers,  and  at  one  point  we  are  shown  the  very  fuse  that  sent 
a poor  miner  to  his  death  but  a day  or  two  before.  But  still  the 
old,  blind  mule  trots  on,  and  the  passing  through  and  rapid 
closing  behind  us  of  the  heavy,  oaken  door,  that  preserves  the 
little  of  wholesome  air  left  in  the  drift,  is  as  if  it  barred  us  for- 
evermore from  the  world  behind.  The  ride  in  appears  an  age  ; 
the  ride  out  but  of  a moment’s  time  in  comparison.  There  are 
eighty-six  side  chambers,  or  rooms,  as  the  miners  know  them,  in 
the  main  entry,  fifty-seven  in  another  entry,  and  in  all,  four  miles 
of  track  upon  which  the  coal  is  carried  to  the  outer  world.  The 
veins  average  five  feet  two  inches,  and  run  three  and  one-half 
miles  east  and  west,  and  ten  miles  north  and  south.  A hundred 
miners  are  at  work,  and  the  yield  averages  400  tons  per  day. 
The  gigantic,  solid  lump  of  coal  eight  feet  nine  inches  long,  six 
feet  across  and  four  feet  four  indies  high,  that  attracted  such 
great  attention  at  the  Centennial,  being  beyond  all  comparison 
the  greatest  single  piece  of  coal  on  exhibition,  was  taken  from 
this  mine.  It  weighed  seven  tons,  and  was  cut  and  brought  out 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


218 

of  the  mine  in  three  days.  Canon  City  coal  is  probably  the  finest 
bituminous  coal  in  the  world,  and  is  so  extensively  used  through- 
out the  West  as  to  require  the  running  of  special  trains  for  coal 
alone,  on  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  road,  which  has  its  own 
track  to  the  mines.  The  supply  is  beyond  all  human  calculation, 
for  the  valley  of  the  Arkansas  is  one  vast  coal  bed  for  mile  upon 
mile. 

“ On  the  return  trip  we  make  quite  a detour  to  the  east,  to 
spend  a little  time  at  the  gypsum  beds,  which  are  twelve  feet  in 
thickness. 

“ Leaving  the  hotel  immediately  following  an  early  breakfast, 
next  morning,  a drive  of  twelve  miles  brings  us  to  the  Grand 
Canon  of  the  Arkansas.  Disappointment  is  bitter,  and  feelings 
of  resentment  almost  beyond  control,  as  nowhere  can  the  eye 
discover  the  canon.  In  the  immediate  foreground  the  pinon 
growth  is  rank  and  dense  ; just  beyond,  great,  bleak  ridges  of 
bare,  cold  rock  contrast  strongly  with  the  profusion  of  foliage 
hiding  everything  beneath  from  sight,  while  away  in  the  dim  dis- 
tance the  snow-crowned  peaks  of  the  continental  divide  are  out- 
lined sharp  and  clear  against  the  solid  blue  of  the  morning  sky. 
Though  grand  beyond  anything  we  have  seen  in  amazing  extent 
of  vision,  the  mind  is  so  wrapped  up  in  the  anticipation  of  full 
realization  of  the  gloom,  and  vastness,  and  solemn  grandeur  of  the 
Grand  Canon,  as  to  resent  almost  angrily  their  apparent  absence. 
A half  dozen  steps  from  the  clump  of  pinon  trees  where  the 
horses  have  been  fastened,  and  all  thoughts  of  resentment,  of 
disappointment  and  chagrin  vanish,  and  a very  cry  of  absolute 
terror  escapes  us.  At  our  very  feet  is  the  canon — another  step 
would  hurl  us  into  eternity.  Shuddering,  we  peer  down  the 
awful  slopes ; fascinated  we  steal  a little  nearer  to  circumvent  a 
very  mountain  that  has  rolled  into  the  chasm,  and  at  last  the  eye 
reaches  down  the  sharp  incline  3,000  feet  to  the  bed  of  the  river, 
the  impetuous  Arkansas,  forty  to  sixty  feet  in  width,  yet  to  us  a 
mere  ribbon  of  molten  silver.  Though  surging  madly  against 
its  rocky  sides,  leaping  wildly  over  gigantic  masses  of  rock  and 
hoarsely  murmuring  against  its  imprisonment  within  these  lofty 
walls,  it  finds  no  avenue  of  escape.  Every  portion  of  these  marble 


THE  ROYAL  GORGE. 


219 


bastions  is  as  smooth  as  if  polished,  and  as  stationary  as  the 
mighty  walls  that  look  down  upon  them  from  such  fearful  height 
“ Fairly  awed  into  a bravado  as  reckless  as  it  is  strange  to  us, 
we  crawl  out  upon  tottering  ledges  to  peer  into  sheer  depths  of 
untold  ruggedness ; we  grasp  with  death-like  clutch  some  over- 
hanging limb  and  swing  out  upon  a promontory  beside  which  the 
apex  of  the  highest  cathedral  spire  in  the  world  would  be  as  a 
sapling  in  height.  We  crawl  where  at  home  we  would  hardly 
dare  look  with  telescope,  and  in  the  mad  excitement  of  the  hour 
tread,  with  perfect  abandon,  brinks,  the  bare  thoughts  of  which, 
in  after  recollection,  make  us  faint  of  heart  and  dizzy  of  head. 
Eager  now  for  still  greater  horrors  of  depth,  blind  to  every- 
thing but  an  intolerable  desire  to  behold  the  most  savage  of 
nature’s  upheavals,  the  short  ride  to  the  Royal  Gorge  is  made 
with  ill-concealed  impatience.  If  our  first  experience  upon  the 
brink  of  the  Grand  Canon  was  startling,  this  is  absolutely  terrify- 
ing, and  the  bravest  at  one  point  become  the  most  abject  of 
cowards  in  comparison  at  the  other.  At  the  first  point  of  obser- 
vation the  walls,  though  frightfully  steep,  are  nevertheless  sloping 
to  more  or  less  extent ; here  at  the  Royal  Gorge  they  are  sheer 
precipices,  as  perpendicular  as  the  tallest  house,  as  straight  as 
if  built  by  line.  So  narrow  is  the  Gorge  that  one  would  think 
the  throwing  of  a stone  from  side  to  side  the  easiest  of  accom- 
plishments, yet  no  living  man  has  ever  done  it,  or  succeeded  in 
throwing  any  object  so  that  it  would  fall  into  the  water  below. 
Many  tourists  are  content  with  the  appalling  view  from  the  main 
walls,  but  others,  more  venturesome,  work  their  way  600  to  a 
1,000  feet  down  the  ragged  edges  of  a mountain,  that  has  parted 
and  actually  slid  into  the  chasm,  and  as  we  have  come  to  see  it 
all,  the  clamber  down  must  be  accomplished.  For  some  distance 
we  scramble  over  and  between  monstrous  boulders,  and  then 
reach  the  narrow  and  almost  absolutely  perpendicular  crevice  of 
a gigantic  mass  of  rock,  down  which  we  must  let  ourselves  100 
feet  or  more.  As  we  reach  the  shelf  or  ledge  of  rock  upon  which 
the  great  rock  has  fallen  and  been  sundered,  we  glance  back, 
but  only  for  a second,  the  thought  of  our  daring  making  us  grow 
sick  and  dizzy  But  a step  or  two  more,  and  the  descent  just 


220 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


made  sinks  into  utter  insignificance  compared  to  what  is  before 
us.  Then  we  had  the  huge  walls  of  the  parted  rock  as  the  rails 
of  a staircase ; now  we  have  naught  but  the  smooth,  rounded 
surface  of  the  storm-washed  boulders  to  cling  to,  and  on  either 
side  of  our. narrow  way,  depths,  at  the  bottom  of  which  a man’s 
body  could  never  be  discovered  with  human  eye.  Behind  us 
the  precipitous  rocks,  over  and  through  which  we  came  ; ahead 
of  us  the  slender  barrier  of  rock  overhanging  the  appalling 
chasm,  and  all  there  exists  between  us  and  it.  Cowards  at  heart, 
pale  of  face  and  with  painful  breath,  we  slowly  crawl  on  hands 
and  knees  to  the  ledge,  and  as  the  fated  murderer  feels  the 
knotted  noose  fall  down  over  his  head,  so  feel  we  as  our  eyes 
extend  beyond  the  rocks  to  catch  one  awful  glimpse  of  the  eter- 
nity of  space.  Few  dare  to  look  more  than  once,  and  one  glance 
suffices  for  a comprehension  of  the  meaning  of  the  word  depth 
never  before  even  dreamed  of,  and  never  afterward  forgotten. 
The  Gorge  is  2,008  feet  sheer  depth,  the  most  precipitous  and 
sublime  in  its  proportions  of  any  chasm  on  the  continent.  The 
opposite  wall  towers  hundreds  of  feet  above  us,  and  if  possible 
to  imagine  anything  more  terrifying  than  the  position  on  this 
side,  that  upon  the  other  would  be,  were  its  brink  safe  to  ap- 
proach. Overhanging  crags,  black  and  blasted  at  their  summits 
or  bristling  with  stark  and  gnarled  pines,  reach  up  into  pro- 
foundly dizzy  heights,  while  lower  down  monstrous  rocks  threaten 
to  topple  and  carry  to  destruction  any  foolhardy  climber  who 
Tvould  venture  upon  them.  Among  all  the  thousands  who  have 
visited  the  Grand  Canon  and  the  Royal  Gorge  harm  has  befallen 
none,  for,  despite  the  seeming  horror  of  the  situation,  the  appall- 
ing depths  and  rugged  paths,  the  fascination  of  the  danger 
appears  to  give  birth  to  greatest  caution.  The  Canon,  except  in 
the  dead  of  winter,  is  approachable  only  from  the  top,  the  walls 
below  being  so  precipitous,  and  the  river  such  a torrent,  as  to 
defy  all  access.  When  frozen,  as  the  waters  are  for  brief  periods 
during  the  coldest  months,  the  way  up  the  canon  may  be  accom- 
plished, but  only  at  the  risk  of  personal  comfort  and  not  a little 
danger.  Mr.  Talbott,  the  photographer  at  Canon  City,  ventured 
into  the  canon  last  winter  with  his  apparatus,  and,  after  infinite 


THE  WET  MOUNTA/N  VALLEY. 


221 


trouble,  secured  the  excellent  views  which  afford  us  some  con- 
ception of  the  grandeur  of  the  gorge  from  the  bottom. 

“Returning  to  Canon  City,  we  conclude  to  remain  about  the 
hotel  for  a day  resting,  and  deciding  upon  the  route  of  a 
tour  through  Southern  Colorado,  taking  in  the  San  Juan  country. 
Chalk  Creek,  California  Gulch,  Twin  Lakes,  South  Park,  etc. 
We  have  enjoyed  to  the  fullest  the  jaunts  of  a day,  and  now  long 
for  a month  on  the  road  with  headquarters  wherever  night  may 
overtake  us.  The  reader  may  be  inclined  to  ask  if  there  are  no 
more  comparatively  short  trips,  with  Canon  City  as  the  base, 
and  the  reply  would  be,  there  are,  and  so  many  in  fact  as  to  be 
almost  beyond  enumeration.  A most  enjoyable  four  to  five 
days’  tour  is  that  from  Canon  City  to  the  wild  and  picturesque 
region  of  the  Sierra  Mojada,  or  Wet  Mountains,  thirty  miles  via 
Oak  Creek  Canon  to  Rosita,  altitude  8,600  feet,  and  return  via 
Wet  Mountain  valley  and  Grape  Creek  canon.  This  is  a ‘tim- 
ber liner,’  as  an  old  prospector  would  denominate  so  wide  and 
high  a range  of  altitude,  and  affords  capital  opportunities  for  the 
enjoyment  of  life  ofttimes  above  the  clouds.  Near  Rosita  are 
several  distinct  craters,  and  in  the  very  accessible  grass-covered, 
cone-shaped  hills  that  rise  500  feet  or  more  above  the  town 
are  innumerable  mines.  About  them  are  found  the  most  beau- 
tiful specimens  of  crystallization,  different  kinds  of  spar  and 
pyrites  of  most  brilliant  hues.  The  ride  down  the  little  grassy 
gulch  or  glade  to  obtain  a nearer  view  of  the  Wet  Mountain 
valley,  and  the  Sangre  de  Christo  range  beyond  its  western  limit, 
is  a very  delightful  one,  looking  at  sunset  time  like  some  grand 
painting  with  the  point  of  view  at  the  small  end  of  the  vista,  and 
the  eye,  ranging  down  the  timber-girted  glade  to  mountains 
13,500  feet  in  altitude,  beholds  the  massive  and  majestic  peaks 
rolling  and  swelling  against  the  clearest  sky  ever  mortal  eye  was 
gladdened  with.  Many  Englishmen  have  made  homes  in  the 
valley,  often  called  ‘The  Britons’  Paradise,’  a name  which  seems 
appropriate  to  the  tourist,  after  leaving  the  grayish  green  of  the 
foot-hills  and  reaching  its  bright  green  meadows,  starting  up 
here  a prairie  dog  and  there  a rabbit,  and  crossing  and  recross- 
ing its  trout-filled  silvery  streams.  In  the  valley  is  .the  famous 


222 


OUR  14  ESTER  AT  EMPIRE. 


Lake  of  the  Clouds.  The  fourth  night  ends  at  Canon  City,  and 
the  expense  of  the  trip  hardly  averages  ^5  per  day,  including 
everything.  Another  exceedingly  pleasant  trip  from  Canon  City 
is  to  Poncho  Springs,  sixty-five  miles  up  the  Arkansas  river,  for 
which  a running  description  of  the  drive  through  the  Upper 
Arkansas  canon  will  suffice.  Engaging  a seat  in  the  regular 
buckboard  line  leaving  Canon  City  every  other  day,  the  start  is 
made  immediately  after  early  breakfast,  and  the  sun  is  hardly 
over  the  mountains  before  the  sublimely  grand  confines  of  Grape 
Creek  canon  are  reached.  A word  as  to  the  buckboard,  for 
beyond  all  comparison  the  most  comfortable  and  enjoyable  of 
all  vehicles  for  mountain  travel,  it  deserves  at  the  least  a passing 
mention.  Built  expressly  for  Barlow  & Sanderson,  the  great 
stage  men  of  Colorado,  the  buckboard  of  their  lines  is  a roomy, 
double-seated,  open  vehicle,  the  slatted  bed  lying  directly  upon 
the  axles,  and  the  seats  set  well  up  on  fish-plate  springs,  the  jar 
consequent  upon  striking  rock  or  stone  is  almost  lost  before  it 
reaches  the  seat.  There  is  none  of  the  rolling,  swaying  motion 
of  the  bulky  coach,  or  of  the  short,  jerky  action  of  the  aptly 
named  ‘Jerkee.’  There  being  no  top,  the  eye  ranges  at  will, 
and  the  bed  of  the  conveyance  is  so  near  the  ground  one  can 
readily  spring  out  and  walk  when  so  inclined,  many  preferring 
so  to  do  when  climbing  long  hills. 

“ Emerging  from  Grape  Creek  canon  the  road  winds  through 
Webster  Park,  thence  into  Copper  Gulch,  at  the  head  of  which 
is  a towering  gateway  of  solid  rock,  and  passing  through  it  to 
the  top  of  the  divide  the  scene  is  grand  beyond  all  conception. 
Directly  ahead  is  the  snowy  range,  with  its  white-capped  crests 
looming  high  above  the  clouds,  which  hang  about  the  rocky 
breasts  below  as  if  loth  to  leave  their  ample  resting-place.  To 
the  left  is  the  Greenhorn  range,  to  the  right  the  great  conti- 
nental divide,  and  imagination  could  not  picture  sight  more  sub- 
lime. Through  Seven-mile  Gulch  the  road  enters  Pleasant  Park, 
with  its  rugged  rock  sculptures,  its  densely-wooded  slopes  and 
grassy  lawns.  On  every  side  are  most  curious  monuments 
formed  of  monster  boulders  one  atop  the  other,  and  holding 
position,  by  apparently  so  frail  a thread,  that  the  gust  of  a mo- 


THE  CLIFF  HOUSES  OF  THE  SAN  JUAN. 


223 


merit’s  duration  would  hurl  them  from  dizzy  heights  to  the  level 
of  the  park.  While  in  the  park,  magnificent  views  are  obtained 
of  Mount  Blanca  and  Pike’s  Peak,  either  of  them  not  less  than 
eighty  miles  away,  and  at  the  summit  of  the  divide  between 
Pleasant  Park  and  the  South  Arkansas — altitude  7,800  feet — the 
view  in  all  directions  is  beyond  description.  From  this  the 
descent  is  commenced ; at  nightfall  the  solid,  comfortable  and 
roomy  old  stone  house,  known,  Colorado  over,  as  Bales’,  is  reached, 
and  with  it  the  South  Arkansas.  Twenty  miles  farther  is  the 
Chalk  Creek  region,  with  its  hot  springs,  fishing  and  hunting, 
and  thirty  miles  beyond  are  the  noted  Twin  Lakes.  Fifteen 
miles  from  the  lakes  is  California  Gulch,  with  the  wonderful 
Mount  of  the  Holy  Cross  to  the  north.” 

There  are,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  State,  in  La  Plata, 
Conejos,  and  San  Juan  counties,  and  around  the  head-waters  of 
the  sources  of  the  San  Juan  river,  many  of  those  ruins  of  houses 
cut  in  the  rocks  of  the  perpendicular  cliffs,  or  on  the  summits  of 
the  isolated  fnesas  or  table- rocks,  of  which  there  are  so  many 
hundreds  of  examples  in  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  Southern 
Utah.  This  whole  region  was  densely  populated  ages  ago,  and 
by  races  far  superior  to  the  existing  tribes  of  Indians.  The 
Moquis,  already  described  in  our  account  of  Arizona,  may  possi- 
bly belong  to  the  same  race  with  these  cliff-dwellers,  for  they 
have  similar  ideas  in  regard  to  their  dwellings  and  languages, 
customs,  habits  and  religion,  entirely  diverse  from  any  of  the 
other  Indian  tribes,  but  some  of  these  ruins  are  many  centuries 
old.  They  were  in  their  present  condition  of  ruins  when  the 
Spaniards  first  penetrated  here,  330  or  340  years  ago.  That 
they  had  formidable  enemies,  whose  attacks  they  evaded  by 
their  fortified  dwelling-places,  seems  evident ; but  whether  those 
enemies  were  Apaches,  Aztecs,  or  other  tribes  or  nations,  now, 
like  themselves,  extinct,  does  not  clearly  appear.  The  extent 
of  these  ruins,  often  250  by  600  or  700  feet,  the  massive  blocks 
of  stone  of  which  some  of  them  are  constructed,  and  the  vast 
labor  by  which  others  were  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  are  well' 
fitted  to  excite  our  admiration.  The  Estufas  or  chapels,  for 
their  .worship  of  the  sun  in  these  buildings,  were  very  large  and 


224 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


elaborately  constructed.  It  is  believed  that  they  were  so  unwar- 
like  as  to  have  no  offensive  weapons.  They  probably  burned 
the  bodies  of  their  dead.  (See  Arizona.) 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Colorado  does  not  consist  alone  in  the 
amount  of  the  precious  metals  contained  in  its  broad  mineral 
belt,  though  this  will  eventually  be  found,  we  think,  greater  than 
that  of  any  other  State,  but  includes  also  copper,  lead,  zinc, 
platina,  tellurium,  iron  in  vast  quantities  and  of  all  kinds  of  ores, 
coal,  gypsum,  salt,  kaolin,  and  pottery  clays,  etc.,  etc. 

The  coal  of  Colorado  is  worthy  of  special  remark.  It  is  widely 
distributed,  being  found  and  worked  in  Weld,  Boulder,  Jefferson, 
El  Paso,  Fremont,  Huerfano,  Las  Animas,  and  La  Plata  coun- 
ties, and  is  known  also  to  exist  in  San  Juan,  Ouray,  Gunnison 
and  Summit  counties.  It  is  of  very  different  qualities  and  of 
different  geologic  ages.  In  the  north  it  is  a lignite  of  the  terti- 
ary period,  of  very  good  quality.  Toward  the  centre  of  the 
State  it  is  a lignite  of  the  cretaceous  period,  but  of  still  bettei 
quality.  In  the  south,  in  the  vicinity  of  Trinidad,  Las  Animas 
county,  the  true  coal  measures  have  been  reached,  and  the  coal 
is  a bituminous  coking  coal  of  great  value.  West  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  La  Plata  county,  it  is  from  the  true  coal  measures, 
semi-bituminous  or  semi-anthracite.  Volcanic  action  in  Las 
Animas  and  La  Plata  counties  has  probably  affected  the  quality 
of  the  coals,  much  as  it  has  in  some  parts  of  New  Mexico,  mak- 
ing, what  would  otherwise  have  been  a soft,  bituminous  coal,  a 
hard  and  dense  anthracite.  It  is  believed  that  the  coal  mines  of 
Gunnison  county,  which  are  known  to  be  anthracite,  have  been 
changed  in  the  same  way,  but  the  quality  is  not  inferior  to  that  of 
Pennsylvania  and  a coking  coal  of  the  best  quality.  The  area 
in  this  county  is  about  600  square  miles,  and  the  beds  are  from 
ten  to  fifty  feet  or  more  in  thickness.  There  are  two  distinct 
beds,  separated  only  by  four  feet  of  iron  shale.  Some  of  it  is 
said  to  be  a true  anthracite  of  excellent  quality,  whether  affected 
by  volcanic  action  or  not  is  not  fully  settled.  The  coal  mines  of 
Colorado  will  eventually  be  sufficient  to  supply  the  entire  West. 

Zoology. — The  wild  animals  of  Colorado  are  usually  those  of 
the  plains,  though  there  are  a few  not  found  in  any  considerable 


ZOOLOGY  OF  COL  OF  ADO. 


225 


numbers  on  the  plains  or  elsewhere  in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  black  and  brown  bear  occur  in  considerable  numbers 
both  in  Eastern  and  Western  Colorado,  and  are  hunted  to  some 
extent.  The  grizzly  bear  is  not  common  even  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  is  unknown  in  Eastern  Colorado.  He  is  a for- 
midable customer  in  a close  fight,  but  is  easily  frightened  away 
by  shouts  or  yells,  when  uninjured.  The  puma,  cougar  or  panther 
is  somewhat  rare,  except  in  the  northwest  of  the  State,  but  his 
congener,  the  jaguar,  American  or  mountain  lion,  is  found 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  the  San  Juan  country,  though 
his  habitat  has  been  generally  supposed  to  be  limited  to  Texas 
and  Arizona.  The  gray  or  black  wolf  is  found  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and,  perhaps,  east  of  them  ; the  prairie  wolf, 
usually,  though  perhaps  incorrectly,  called  coyote,  is  frequent 
enough  in  Eastern  Colorado,  but  not  plenty  in  the  west.  The 
lynx,  ocelot,  wild  cat,  martin,  fisher,  and  skunk  are  here,  as  else- 
where, in  considerable  numbers.  The  buffalo  still  frequents, 
though  in  greatly  decreased  numbers,  the  elevated  plains  of 
Eastern  Colorado,  but  never  appears  in  the  mountains  or  west 
of  them.  His  rare  congener,  the  mountain  or  wood  buffalo,  is 
occasionally  found,  solitary,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  elk 
(wapiti),  the  finest  game  animal  of  the  West,  has  been  thus  far 
very  abundant  in  the  West  and  especially  in  the  great  parks; 
but  it  has  been  so  destructively  hunted  that  its  numbers  are  fast 
diminishing.  The  Virginia  and  mule-deer  are  numerous,  and 
the  antelope  is  found  on  the  plains,  while  in  the  mountains  the 
bighorn,  or  Rocky  Mountain  sheep  and,  more  rarely,  the  Rocky 
Mountain  goat,  are  plenty  enough  to  make  hunting  of  them  rare 
sport.  The  smaller  rodents  and  rnunchers,  squirrels  of  many 
species,  beavers,  minks,  muskrats,  rats,  mice,  moles,  gophers, 
marmots,  rabbits,  sage,  and  jackass  hares,  etc.,  etc.,  are,  in  the 
agricultural  districts,  more  plentiful  than  desirable. 

Birds,  though  not  as  numerous  as  in  California,  are  yet 
abundant  and  of  many  genera  and  species.  Of  birds  of  prey, 
there  are  two,  possibly  three,  species  of  the  eagle,  several  of  the 
vulture,  and  hawks  and  owls  in  abundance.  In  and  around  the 
lakes,  in  the  parks  and  elsewhere,  and  on  the  plains,  are  a great 
42 


226 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


abundance  of  game  birds,  the  wild  goose  migrating  southward, 
ducks,  brant,  teal,  and  other  water  and  marsh  birds,  including 
cranes,  ibises  and  English  and  jack-snipe.  The  prairie-hens  and 
other  species  of  grouse,  partridges,  ptarmigan,  quail,  and,  more 
rarely,  the  wild  turkey  and  pheasant,  are  found  in  countless 
numbers  on  the  plains  and  in  the  parks.  In  the  mountains  are 
many  song  birds.* 

Reptiles  are  not  very  numerous  nor  formidable.  There  are 
lizards,  horned  toads  and  frogs,  terrapins  and  turtles  of  the 
smaller  kinds,  one  species  of  rattlesnake,  and  many  harmless 
snakes. 

Fish  abound  in  the  rivers  and  lakes,  most  of  them  edible. 
Trout  are  plentiful,  and  of  large  size  in  all  the  mountain  streams, 
and  grayling,  black  bass,  pickerel,  etc.,  are  found  in  the  lakes 
and  larger  streams.  Many  of  the  streams  have  been  stocked 
with  fish  from  the  United  States  Fish  Commission.  The  insect 
tribes,  though  numerous  enough,  are  not  as  annoying  as  in 
some  sections.  Even  the  fly,  which,  in  the  West,  accompanies 
civilization,  has  been  known  to  the  hunters  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  less  than  ten  years.  The  mosquito  does  not  “ pipe 
his  soft  note,”  nor  present  his  formidable  bill  as  ferociously  as  in 
Arkansas,  nor  are  the  other  insect  pests  troublesome.  The 
Rocky  Mountain  locust,  rather  contemptuously  called  “grass- 
hopper,” and  the  ten-lined  spearman,  generally  known  as  the 
“ Colorado  beetle  ” or  potato-bug,  are  both  popularly  supposed 
to  be  natives  of  Colorado.  We  doubt  whether  the  State  is  en- 
titled to  the  honor  or  the  reproach.  Many  circumstances  seem 

* Mr.  S.  Nugent  Townshend,  an  eminent  English  sportsman  and  correspondent  of  The  Field 
(London),  thus  speaks  of  some  of  the  rarer  game  birds  and  animals  he  had  shot  in  Northern 
Colorado  ; 

“ A few  of  the  rare  species  we  have  seen  in  the  Rockies,  all  of  which  are  worth  preserving, 
are  the  blue  hares  (white  in  winter) ; the  gray-crowned  finch,  supposed  to  be  the  rarest  bird  in 
America,  because  he  is  always  above  timber-line,  where  few  go  to  look  for  him ; Clarke’s  crow, 
or  the  noisy  chatterer,  also  living  only  at  great  altitudes;  the  pine  grosbeak,  also  found  only  at 
high  elevations,  red  in  summer,  in  winter  gray,  with  yellow  head;  long-crested  jay,  black  head 
and  crest,  blue  and  black  transverse,  ribbed  wings  and  tail;  red-shafted  woodpecker,  rather 
rare  and  a beauty,  body  cuckoo-marked,  with  regular  gray  woodpecker  head  and  breast,  red  under 
the  wings.  Great  horned  owls  are,  though  handsome,  very  common,  as  is  the  towhee  finch. 
The  cross-bred  foxes,  between  red  and  gray,  are  large,  abundant,  and  very  pretty  when 
stuffed.  ” 


NORTH  AND  SOUTH  DAKOTA. 


227 

to  indicate  the  origin  of  the  latter  from  some  part  of  the  Great 
Basin,  possibly  in  Western  Utah;  while  the  locust,  according 
to  its  usual  habit  of  making  its  original  home  in  the  desert,  prob- 
ably made  its  way  into  Colorado  from  the  arid  plains  and 
mesas  of  Southern  Utah  and  Southern  Nevada,  or  possibly  from 
Arizona.  At  all  events,  they  have  never  proved  as  destructive 
to  the  crops  in  Colorado  as  they  have  in  States  farther  east  and 
northeast. 


CHAPTER  V. 

NORTH  AND  SOUTH  DAKOTA. 


North  and  South  Dakota  as  now  constituted  lie  between  the 
parallels  of  42°  30'  and  49^*  north  latitude,  and  between  the  merid- 
ians of  96°  20' and  104  west  longitude  from  Greenwich.  There 
is  also  a small  tract  of  about  2,000  square  miles,  lying  between 
Montana,  Idaho  and  Wyoming,  of  an  irregular  and  partially  tri- 
angular form,  which  was  overlooked  when  Wyoming  was  organ- 
ized, which  belongs  to  Dakota,  though  no  jurisdiction  is  exercised 
over  it  by  the  State,  and  it  is  at  least  45o  miles  from  its  nearest 
boundary.  This  little  tract  is  traversed  by  the  Utah  and  Northern 
Railway,  and  includes  a small  slice  of  the  Yellowstone  Park. 
Dakota  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Northwest  British  Terri- 
tory and  Manitoba,  east  by  Minnesota  and  Iowa,  south  by 
Nebraska  and  the  Missouri  river,  and  west  by  Wyoming  and 
Montana.  Its  area  is  150,932  square  miles,  or  96,596,480  acres. 


228 


OVR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


It  is  about  450  miles  in  length  from  north  to  south,  and  350 
miles  from  east  to  west. 

The  first  settlements  in  the  Territory  were  made  in  the  south- 
east in  1859  in  Yankton  and  vicinity,  but  were  very  few  and 
scattering.  It  was  first  organized  as  a Territory  in  1861,  con- 
taining then  a vast  territory,  which  has  since  been  reduced  by 
the  organization  of  other  Territories  till,  in  1868,  it  was  reduced  to 
its  present  area.  The  Missouri  river  traverses  the  Territory 
from  Fort  Buford  in  the  northwest  to  Sioux  City  in  the  south- 
east, and  is  navigable  for  the  whole  distance.  Its  largest  afflu- 
ent, the  Yellowstone,  enters  it  opposite  Fort  Buford,  just  as  it 
enters  the  Territory.  The  Missouri  receives  eleven  or  twelve 
large  tributaries  on  the  south  side,  and  about  the  same  num- 
ber on  the  north  side,  within  the  limits  of  the  Territory.  The 
Red  river  of  the  North  rises  in  Lake  Traverse  (latitude  46°),  and 
flowing  due  north  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Territory 
for  more  than  200  miles  to  the  boundaries  of  Manitoba,  and 
enters  Lake  Winnipeg  in  the  northern  part  of  that  province. 
The  Red  river  has  two  large  affluents,  the  Pembina  and  the’ 
Sheyenne,  and  several  smaller  ones.  The  Souris  or  Mouse 
river,  a tributary  of  the  Assiniboine,  one  of  the  Canadian  rivers, 
drains  the  northwestern  part  of  the  Territory.  The  Minnesota 
river,  a tributary  of  the  Mississippi,  has  its  source  in  Big  Stone 
lake,  and  several  of  its  affluents  rise  in  Southeastern  Dakota. 

Of  the  tributaries  of  the  Missouri  in  Dakota,  the  principal  on 
the  north  side  are  the  Big  Sioux,  and  the  Dakota  or  James.  The 
latter  is  nearly  400  miles  in  length,  a river  of  considerable  vol- 
ume, but  is  not  navigable  in  any  part  of  its  course.  On  the  south 
side  of  the  Missouri,  the  principal  affluents  are:  the  Niobrara, 
which  forms  the  boundary  between  Nebraska  and  Dakota  for  a 
considerable  distance,  and  its  tributary,  the  Keyapaha;  the  White 
river,  the  Big  Cheyenne,  with  its  north  and  south  forks  (the  for- 
mer bearing  also  the  name  of  La  Belle  Fourche),  the  Owl  river, 
the  Grand  river,  and  the  north  and  south  forks  of  the  Cannonball 
river,  the  Heart  river,  the  Big  Knife  river  and  the  Little  Missouri. 
The  whole  Territory  is  well  watered. 

Dakota  has  very  many  lakes,  some  of  them,  like  Lakes  Minne- 


GOVERNO/^  I/OPVARn^S  REPORT  OF  1878.  229 

Waukan,  Traverse.  Big  Stone,*  James,  Kampeska,  etc.,  of  large 
size,  and  all  of  remarkable  beauty. 

Dakota  was  formerly  divided  into  two  or  three  distinct  sec- 
tions, and  since  the  cession  of  the  reservations  of  the  Sioux 
and  other  Indian  tribes  a fourth  has  been  added.  Northeastern, 
or  perhaps  more  properly  Northern  Dakota,  extends  across  the 
State  fifty  miles  or  more  on  either  side  of  the  Northern  Pacific 
Railway,  from  the  Red  River  valley  to  the  bounds  of  Montana. 
It  is,  for  the  most  part,  a very  fine  wheat  region.  The  soil  is 
rich,  deep  and  easily  tilled,  and  yields  large  crops  of  the  cereals, 
and  of  potatoes  and  other  root  crops.  Central  Dakota,  the  new 
division,  includes  much  of  the  former  Sioux  reservation.  This 
is  also  good  land  for  the  cereals,  for  Indian  corn,  the  root  crops, 
and  some  portions  of  it  for  grazing.  The  third  section,  South- 
east Dakota,  is  almost  wholly  farming  land,  and  along  the  river 
valleys  and  the  plains,  which  extend  back  from  them,  there  is  no 
better  land  anywhere  on  the  continent.  The  so-called  Bad  Lands 
[mauvaises  terres)  of  Southern  Dakota  are  of  much  less  extent 
than  has  generally  been  supposed.  They  are  entirely  in  this 
section,  and  there  are  but  75,000  acres  (about  three  townships 
in  all)  of  them.  There  is  said  to  be  another  small  tract  in  the 
northwest,  but  not  much  is  known  of  them.  The  adjacent  lands, 
though  not  so  good  for  farming,  are  yet  superior  for  grazing ; 
and  the  Bad  Lands  themselves  yield  at  least  an  ample  crop  of 
fossils.* 

The  late  Hon.  William  A.  Howard,  Governor  of  Dakota  and 
previously  Governor  of  Michigan,  in  his  report  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Interior,  under  date  of  December  i6th,  1878,  thus  de- 
scribed three  of  these  sections : 

“ The  Territory  of  Dakota  is  very  large,  being  nearly  400 
miles  square,  or  more  than  four  times  as  large  as  the  State  of 
Ohio.  The  settlements  are  principally  confined  to  three  distinct 
localities  as  remote  from  each  other  as  possible,  and  of  very 
difficult  and  expensive  communication  with  each  other. 

*In  these  Bad  Lands  have  been  discovered  some  of  the  most  remarkable  fossils  yet  found  in 
America.  The  whole  region  is  the  cemetery  of  the  extinct  monsters  of  the  cretaceous  and 
earlier  geologic  ages. 


230 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


“The  settlements  of  Southeastern  Dakota,  in  which  is  located 
the  present  capital,  extend  from  Northeastern  Nebraska  mainly 
in  a northern  direction  up  the  Big  Sioux,  the  Vermilion,  and 
the  James  rivers.  These  settlements  are  extending  north  along 
the  border  of  Northwestern  Iowa  and  Southwestern  Minnesota 
as  far  as  Lake  Kampeska,  and  as  far  west  as  the  James  river. 
Although  the  population  is  sparse  at  present  it  is  rapidly  filling 
up.  Southeastern  Dakota  has  a population  at  the  present  time 
of  not  less  than  50,000,  and  probably  60,000. 

“Northern  Dakota  is  settled,  or  rather  settling,  along  the 
west  bank' of  the  Red  river  of  the  North,  from  Richland  county, 
opposite  Breckinridge,  down  to  Pembina,  on  the  line  of  the 
British  possessions,  crossing  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  at 
Fargo,  and  extending  west  along  the  line  of  that  road  to  Bis- 
marck. Population,  perhaps  40,000. 

“The  other  settlement  is  in  the  Black  Hills,  occupied  mainly 
by  a mining  population,  and  containing  a population  at  the 
present  time  of  10,000  at  least,  and  probably  12,000. 

“I  suppose  it  is  about  350  miles  in  a straight  line  from  Yank- 
ton to  Deadwood.  But  the  only  feasible  way  of  getting  there 
involves  travel  of  at  least  900  miles,  and  an  expense  greater 
than  the  journey  from  Yankton  to  Washington,  and  requiring 
more  time  to  perform  it.  The  distance  from  Yankton  to  Pem- 
bina as  the  ‘ crow  flies  ’ is  at  least  400  miles,  and  requires  more 
time  and  expense  than  a visit  to  the  capital  of  the  nation. 

“ The  three  sections  are  not  only  remote  from  each  other  and 
of  difficult  access,  but  their  interests  are  separate  and  not 
identical. 

“ In  a commercial  point  of  view.  Saint  Paul  and  Duluth  are 
the  objective  points  of  Northern  Dakota,  while  Chicago  and 
Milwaukee  will  naturally  drain  Southeastern  Dakota.  Mean- 
while the  vast  wealth  the  Black  Hills  will  swing  to  the  right 
or  left  as  it  may  best  force  itself  out,  or  as  railroad  enterprise 
shall  open  a more  direct  way  over  which  it  may  move.  The 
great  Indian  reservation  west  of  the  Missouri  river  contains 
56,000  square  miles,  about  the  size  of  all  Michigan,  including 
both  peninsulas.  Of  course  this  will  prevent  settlement,  and 


GENERAL  PROGRESS  OF  DAKOJA. 


231 

tend  to  turn  the  business  of  the  Black  Hills  to  the  south  or 
north  of  itself.” 

At  this  time  the  treaty  with  the  Sioux,  which  resulted  in  their 
relinquishing-  the  greater  part  of  their  reservation  in  Central 
Dakota,  had  not  been  consummated,  and  that  reservation  was 
necessarily  a barrier  to  any  ready  or  easy  communication  with 
the  Black  Mills  through  Dakota. 

Governor  Howard  added  : 

“The  resources  of  this  Territory  are  both  agricultural  and 
mineral,  and  of  vast  extent,  only  partially  developed  as  yet ; but 
enough  has  been  done  to  demonstrate  the  fact  that  Dakota,  con- 
sidering her  vast  extent  of  territory,  has  agricultural  resources 
scarcely  second  to  those  of  any  State  in  the  Union.  Dakota  has 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Missouri  river  at  least  60,000  square 
miles  of  land  fit  for  the  plow.  It  is  believed  that  at  least  1 5,000,000 
bushels  of  wheat  will  be  produced  next  year.”'^ 

* In  an  address  delivered  by  Governor  Howard  at  Yankton,  before  the  Congregational  Asso- 
ciation, November  ist,  1879,  he  said,  among  other  things  : 

“ In  1858,  when  it  was  proposed  to  admit  Minnesota  to  the  Union  as  a State,  it  was  strongly 
opposed  on  the  ground  that  such  a region  could  never  sustain  the  permanent  population  of  a 
State.  It  was  said  that  when  the  fur  trade  was  exhausted  and  some  pine  lumber  cut,  in  a few 
years,  the  region  would  be  abandoned  as  it  could  not  sustain  animal  life,  especially  that  of  man- 
kind. But  look  now,  after  only  twenty  years,  at  the  great  State  of  Minnesota  with  its  thirty  or 
forty  millions  of  bushels  of  wheat,  and  filling  up  to  its  utmost  borders  with  a thrifty  population. 
Here  now  is  Dakota  Territory,  nearly  400  miles  square,  and  it  has  more  acres  of  arable  land 
than  any  State  in  the  Union  except  possibly  Texas.  It  is  more  than  three  times  as  large  as  New 
York  and  about  four  times  the  area  of  Ohio.  It  has  met  the  same  objections  as  Minnesota,  and 
is  now  overcoming  them  in  the  same  way.  lanes  of  railroad  are  rapidly  building  across  our 
rich  plains,  and  new  communities  are  forming  on  every  hand.  I was  told  that  on  that  part  of 
our  eastern  border  between  Eden  and  Big  Stone  lake  there  was  for  some  time  last  summer  an 
average  of  300  teams  and  wagons  per  day  entering  Dakota.  The  same  is  true  of  Northern 
Dakota,  where  the  marvellous  growth  of  country  and  towns  is  a constant  surprise.  The  Gover- 
nor alluded  to  Fargo  and  its  growth  and  to  that  of  Grand  Forks  as  about  equal  to  it.  He  then 
touched  upon  the  population,  wealth  and  development  of  the  Black  Hills.  He  was  there  just 
after  the  fire  at  Deadwood,  and  spoke  with  eloquence  and  high  respect  for  the  sterling  manhood 
and  self-reliance  of  the  people  under  that  misfortune.  He  noted  special  instances  of  manly 
traits  shown,  of  the  fair  play  exhibited  in  respect  to  disputed  titles  where  so  much  depended  on 
possession.  He  described  the  great  mines  and  the  new  discoveries  and  developments  steadily 
progressing.  His  general  summary  of  the  advantages  and  resources  of  all  Dakota  was  masterly 
and  str©ng.  He  declared  that  we  now  had  at  least  150,000  population  and  many  thought  more. 
Of  these  one-third  had  come  in  the  last  eight  months  and  one-half  in  eighteen  months.  The 
railroads  are  going  forward,  more  people  are  coming,  new  centres  of  population  are  forming 
and  the  future  is  assured.  The  Governor  then  declared  that  if  every  church  would  quadruple 
its  efforts  in  Dakota,  it  would  only  fairly  fill  the  present  needs  of  new  forming  communities.  He 


232 


OUR  WES7RRN  EMPIRE. 


Hon.  Henry  Espersen,  United  States  Surveyor-General  of 
Dakota,  in  his  report  to  the  United  States  Land  Office,  in  No- 
vember, 1879,  thus  states  the  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  agricul- 
ture and  minerals  of  the  Territory: 

“The  soil  of  that  portion  of  Dakota  lying  east  of  the  Missouri 
river  is  generally  a rich  clay  or  sandy  loam,  very  little  rating 
below  second-class.  In  the  valleys  of  the  Missouri,  Big  Sioux, 
Dakota,  Vermilion,  Cheyenne,  Red  river,  and  other  streams,  the 
soil  is  exceptionally  rich,  producing  large  crops  of  grain  and 
grass.  In  this  region  there  are  no  extensive  areas  of  marsh  or 
sand.  The  country  is  fairly  watered  by  the  streams  named  and 
their  tributaries,  and  by  numerous  lakes  in  the  northern  and 
eastern  portions.  I have  yet  to  hear  of  the  point  in  the  Terri- 
tory where  water  cannot  be  had  at  a reasonable  depth  by  dig- 
ging. West  of  the  Missouri  river  the  character  of  the  soil  is  not 
so  fully  determined,  most  of  that  section  having  been  included  in 
Indian  reservations,  but  as  far  as  known  it  is  generally  good. 
The  district  west  of  the  Missouri  river,  prominently  shown  upon 
early  maps  as  the  ‘ bad  lands,’  might  be  compressed  into  a few 
townships.  It  may  be  said,  in  fact,  that  the  proportion  of  waste 
land  in  the  Territory,  owing  to  the  absence  of  swamps,  mountain 
ranges,  overflowed  and  sandy  tracts,  is  less  than  in  any  other 
State  or  Territory  in  the  Union.  In  the  valleys  and  foot-hills  of 
the  Black  Hills  the  soil  is  rich  and  productive,  and  the  rainfall 
abundant  the  past  season.  It  is  expected  that,  in  an  agricultural 
way,  that  region  will  be  self-sustaining  without  irrigation. 

“Owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  and  general  even- 
ness of  temperature,  the  climate  of  Dakota  is  very  salubrious, 
and  well  adapted  to  agricultural  pursuits.  The  average  tem- 
perature of  Southern  Dakota  may  be  compared  to  that  of  South- 
ern Illinois,  Northern  Indiana,  and  Ohio.  In  the  northern  por- 
tions the  winters  are  somewhat  more  severe.  In  the  southern 

hoped  they  would  do  so.  Not  only  this  church  but  all  evangelical  churches.  He  spoke  of  the 
importance  of  occupying  strategic  points,  of  doing  this  early  and  keeping  up  the  communica- 
tions like  an  army  in  its  campaign.  He  alluded  also  to  education  and  the  munificent  provision 
made  by  the  United  States  for  our  future  schools,  declaring  that  if  properly  handled  it  would 
ultimately  produce  ^25,000,000.  He  called  for  such  a public  sentiment  as  would  paralyze  any 
sacrilegious  hand  that  should  wrongly  touch  that  fund.” 


THE  SURVEVOR-GENERAVS  ACCOUNT. 


233 

part  early  frosts  are  very  rare  and  the  weather  very  fine  down  to 
the  first  of  November.  Little  snow  falls  in  the  winter,  and 
sleighs  are  almost  unknown. 

“The  agricultural  products  of  the  Territory  include  the  whole 
range  of  those  common  to  the  Northern  States.  Small  grains 
and  vegetables  grow  in  the  greatest  perfection.  Northern  Da- 
kota, particularly  the  Red  river  valley,  is  destined  to  become  one 
of  the  greatest  wheat-producing  regions  in  the  country.  No  sys- 
tematic effort  has  yet  been  made  in  pomology,  but,  from  what 
has  been  done,  there  is  no  doubt  that  when  the  varieties  best 
suited  to  the  soil  and  climate  are  settled  upon,  fruit-growing  will 
become  a profitable  occupation.  At  present,  next  to  grain, 
stock-raising  is  the  most  growing  industry.  The  excellent 
grasses  and  mild  climate  have  given  this  occupation  a great 
impetus,  and  within  the  past  two  years  large  sums  have  been 
invested  in  young  stock. 

“ Deputy  surveyors  employed  this  season,  west  of  Bismarck 
and  near  the  line  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  report  coal 
croppings  at  various  points  near  the  Sweet  Brier  river,  and 
between  that  and  the  Big  Heart  river.  One  vein  in  that  vicinity 
is  being  worked  to  a limited  extent,  but  the  coal  taken  out  so  far, 
from  near  the  surface,  is  of  a somewhat  inferior  quality.  Bitu- 
minous coal  has  also  been  found  in  the  Black  Hills,  but  the  vein 
has  not  been  sufficiently  developed  to.  determine  its  economic 
value. 

“ No  metals  have  been  found  in  any  quantity  outside  of  the 
Black  Hills.  In  that  district  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  mica  have 
been  found  in  quantities  of  commercial  value.  A fine  bed  of 
the  latter  is  now  being  worked. 

“Of  the  gold  and  silver  product,  it  can  only  be  said  in  the 
limits  of  this  report  that  it  is  steadily  increasing.  Daily  more 
capital  and  refined  methods  are  employed  in  the  various  mines 
now  open,  and  new  discoveries  are  constantly  being  made.  The 
ease  with  which  the  auriferous  ores  are  worked  makes  profitable 
the  mining  of  very  low-grade  ores.  There  is  said,  by  persons 
competent  to  judge,  to  be  enough  gold  and  silver  ore  ‘in  sight’ 
in  the  Black  Hills  to  employ  the  present  mining  facilities  for  the 
next  ten  years.” 


234 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


In  his  annual  report  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  bearing 
date  September  13,  1879,  Governor  Howard  used  the  following 
language : 

“The  mineral  product  of  the  Black  Hills  must  be  at  least 
three  millions  of  dollars  for  the  year,  and  is  rapidly  increasing. 
A large  number  of  stamps,  for  crushing  the  ore,  and  machinery 
of  every  kind,  have  been  added,  and  it  is  believed  the  product 
of  gold  will  be  more  than  doubled  the  coming  year.  The  mines 
are  proving  rich,  and  the  systematic  working  of  them  is  proving 
remunerative.  The  rapid  development  of  the  agricultural  re- 
sources of  the  Black  Hills  and  the  large  immigration  going  in 
and  producing  food  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mines,  must  lessen  the 
cost  of  living  and  stimulate  production  and  insure  the  reward  of 
all  classes  of  labor. 

“ Immigration  this  year  has  been  large,  far  greater  than  in  any 
former  year,  and  this  large  increase  extends  to  all  parts  of  the 
settled  portion  of  the  Territory — perhaps  about  the  same  per- 
centage of  increase  in  each  of  the  three  divisions.  Southeastern 
Dakota  has  had  a very  large  increase  of  population.  I am  told 
by  persons  in  whom  I have  confidence  that  as  many  as  three 
hundred  teams,  immigrant  wagons,  have  passed  into  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  Territory  daily  through  the  summer.  Quite 
as  large  a percentage  has  come  into  Northern  Dakota.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  increase  in  the  Black  Hills.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  census  returns  it  is  impossible  to  state  with  accuracy 
our  present  population.  The  swelling  tide  of  immigration  spread 
over  so  vast  a territory,  much  of  it  in  unorganized  counties, 
makes  satisfactory  estimates  difficult  if  not  impossible.  Well- 
informed  persons  have  estimated  our  population  at  160,000, 
others  at  170,000,  and  some  as  high  as  180,000.  At  the  present 
time  I think  it  is  at  least  150,000,  probably  more  than  that.  The 
immigration  to  the  Black  Hills  has  been  large  and  of  a very 
satisfactory  character.  They  claim  to  have,  and  I think  with 
good  reason,  from  25,000  to  30,000  inhabitants. 

“ Railroad  facilities  are  being  largely  increased  in  Dakota. 
We  have  of  completed  railroad  in  the  Territory  about  400 
miles ; this  will  be  increased  before  January  next  to  over  500 


EDUCATION  IN  DAKOTA. 


235 

miles.  Several  strong  corporations  are  pushing  their  trunk 
lines  into  this  Territory  at  various  places,  as  well  to  carry  the 
products  of  our  rich  soil  as  ultimately  to  reach  the  Black  Hills. 

“It  is  but  a short  time  since  vast  herds  of  buffalo  roamed  un- 
disturbed over  these  prairies  ; now  farms  stocked  with  cattle  and 
sheep  everywhere  abound.  It  is  not  long  since  we  were  taught 
in  our  Eastern  homes,  and  in  our  schools,  and  learned  from  our 
geographies  the  story  of  the  Bad  Lands,  the  ‘ Great  American 
Desert,'  and  were  left  to  believe  that  Dakota  for  barrenness  was 
only  equalled  by  the  Desert  of  Sahara,  and  whose  chilling  blasts 
were  equal  to  the  cold  of  Greenland ; but  since  it  has  been 
demonstrated  that  Dakota  has  a soil  exceedingly  rich,  has  more 
arable  and  less  waste  land  in  proportion  to  its  size  than  any 
State  or  Territory  in  the  whole  Union,  and  since  millions  of 
bushels  of  grain  are  already  waiting  transportation  to  the  mar- 
kets of  the  world,  capital,  proverbially  timid,  is  stretching  out  its 
arms  and  with  hooks  of  steel  is  drawing  to  itself  the  carrying 
trade  of  an  empire. 

“The  interest  our  people  take  in  education  and  the  moral  im- 
provements is  steadily  increasing.  Schools  are  increased  in 
number  and  improved  in  character ; churches  are  multiplied ; 
greater  respect  for  law  than  formerly  is  apparent.  If  we  con- 
sider the  richness  and  extent  of  our  school  lands,  it  will  be  found 
that  Congress  has  provided  for  us  a school  fund  that,  when  de- 
veloped, will  be  equal  to  that  of  any  State  in  the  Union.  If  no 
sacrilegious  hand  shall  be  permitted  to  squander  any  portion  of 
this  rich  inheritance,  Dakota  will  have  a population  second  to  no 
State  for  intelligence  and  virtue.” 

It  is  due  to  these  growing  and  enterprising  young  States  that 
we  should  go  somewhat  more  into  detail  in  regard  to  the  topo- 
graphy, soil,  productions,  and  interests  of  the  various  sections 
of  the  two  Dakotas.  Through  the  courtesy  and  kindness  of  the 
State  officials,  particularly  the  Governor,  as  well  as  personal  friends 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


236 

whom  he  interested  in  the  matter,  we  are  enabled  to  lay  before 
our  readers  a much  more  complete  description  of  each  section 
than  has  ever  been  published.  We  begin  with  Northern  Dakota, 
and  give  a carefully  written  paper,  prepared  for  the  writer  by 
Hon.  James  B.  Power,  of  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  now  the  accom- 
plished and  thoroughly  informed  Land  Commissioner  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railway.  Mr.  Power’s  opportunities  of  being 
fully  informed  in  regard  to  Northern  Dakota  have  been  excep- 
tional, and  he  has  given  our  readers  the  full  benefit  of  his  re- 
searches. 

“NORTHERN  DAKOTA. 

“The  development  of  Northern  Dakota  in  the  past  few  years 
has  been  perfectly  marvellous,  and  the  vast  plains  which  were 
once  considered  sterile  and  worthless  have  become  populated 
with  thousands  of  successful  husbandmen  whose  labors  on  the 
soil,  which  is  discovered  to  be  as  fertile  as  any  in  the  world,  add 
millions  of  dollars  to  the  common  wealth  of  the  nation. 

“The  building  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  is,  without 
doubt,  the  greatest  project  of  the  character  ever  undertaken, 
and  it  is,  as  a well-known  writer  recently  said,  ‘ of  all  the  pro- 
jected railroads  to  the  western  ocean,  the  one  which  must  be  of 
the  greatest  value  and  importance  to  the  American  people.  It 
is  the  one  which  will  open  to  settlement  by  far  the  most  exten- 
sive, most  fertile  and  in  every  way  most  desirable  regions.’ 

“The  practical  history  of  Northern  Dakota  dates  by  the  logic 
of  events,  from  the  advent  of  the  railroad  within  its  boundaries, 
as  before  that  time  the  great  plains  had  been  almost  unknown 
to  man.  Single  trails  extended  in  direct  lines  to  the  immense 
northern  regions  from  whose  forests  came  vast  stores  of  valuable 
skins,  and  occasionally  trappers  and  hunters  made  expeditions 
along  the  wooded  streams  which,  with  difficulty,  find  courses 
through  the  level  land. 

“ Thousands  of  buffalo  roamed  at  will,  finding  rich  nourishment 
in  the  succulent  grasses,  and  deer,  elk  and  wolves  aided  in 
swelling  the  wild  population  of  the  region,  and  furnished  game 
for  the  tribes  of  Indians  who  made  frequent  hunting  sallies  from 
the  north  and  south.  Explorers  returned  with  discouraging 


MR.  J.  B.  POWER  IN  NORTHERN  DAKOTA.  237 

stories  of  the  utter  uselessness  of  the  soil  and  the  unfitness  of 
the  region  for  human  habitation,  so  that  it  was  looked  upon  as  a 
ereat  barren  desert. 

“ The  building  of  a railroad  through  such  a waste  was  pro- 
nounced absurd,  and  the  project  of  spending  millions  of  dollars 
in  laying  a track  through  so  extended  an  unproductive  region, 
although  a rich  country  might  be  reached  farther  west,  was 
scoffed  at,  as  the  wildest  extravagance. 

“ It  was  known  that  the  immediate  valley  of  the  Red  river  was 
fertile,  for,  fully  twenty-five  years  before,  fine  crops  had  been 
raised  at  a trading-post  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  located 
twenty  miles  north,  or  down  river,  from  the  point  at  which  the 
railroad  now  crosses. 

“Several  land  companies  had  been  formed  about  1856,  for  the 
purpose  of  bringing  the  lands  of  the  valley  into  market,  but  the 
panic  of  1857  demoralized  them.  Of  course  but  few  of  the 
original  settlers  remain  on  the  land  about  the  old  trading-post, 
but  one,  who  is  now  postmaster  at  Georgetown,  twenty  miles 
north  of  Fargo,  has,  for  twenty-two  years,  cropped  land  plowed 
by  the  company,  and  he  avers  that  it  is  still  too  rich. 

“The  railroad  had  done  a great  work  in  developing  Northern 
Minnesota,  but,  when  the  operation  of  building  was  commenced 
in  Dakota,  much  hesitation  was  displayed  about  undertaking  the 
cultivation  of  the  prairies  beyond  the  Red  River  valley.  Some 
far-seeing  men,  however,  were  satisfied  that  the  soil  was  admir- 
ably adapted  for  wheat-raising,  and,  in  1875,  the  first  experiment 
of  importance  was  made  and  resulted  so  favorably  that  the 
great  Bonanza  Farms,  such  as  the  Dalrymple,  were  set  in  oper- 
ation.” 

The  following  description  of  the  territory,  formed  into  North 
Dakota  and  South  Dakota,  November,  1889,  is  from  the  pen  of 
the  Hon.  W.  H.  H.  Beadle. 

North  Dakota  contains  72.000  square  miles,  which  is  nearly  all 
prairie.  South  Dakota  contains  78,000  square  miles.  There  are 
erroneous  impressions  concerning  these  States  which  are  some- 
times favorable,  but  more  generally  unfavorable  to  them.  To  arrive 
at  a proper  understanding,  their  general  physical  features  are  of 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


238 

the  first  importance.  In  the  first  place  but  a very  small  part  of 
it  is  mountainous,  and  this  part  is  the  Black  Hills,  which  are  hills, 
rather  than  mountains.  Dakota  does  not  lie  among  or  upon  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  If  one  will  begin  in  New  Mexico  and  follow 
along  the  Rocky  Mountains,  it  will  be  found  that  they  run  nearly 
due  north,  through  New  Mexico,  Colorado  and  into  Wyoming, 
where  they  turn  decidedly  westward  and  then  northwestward, 
leaving  outlying  lower  ranges,  spurs  and  hills  to  the  north  and 
northeast  as  far  as  the  Black  Hills.  The  traveler  upon  the 
Union  Pacific  Railroad  observes  this.  He  ascends  along  the 
Platte  and  the  Lodge  Pole  to  or  a little  beyond  Cheyenne,  and 
finds  himself  upon  the  elevated  mountain  plateaux;  and  thence 
westward  he  follows  a mountain  divide,  from  which  the  country 
is  generally  lower  toward  the  Yellowstone  and  Missouri,  and 
also  southward  toward  the  Bear,  Grand  and  Green  rivers,  of  the 
Colorado.  He  commences  to  descend  into  the  Utah  basin,  and 
the  mountain  range  goes  north-northwest  through  Idaho  and 
Montana  (including  part  of  Western  Wyoming). 

“Ascending  the  Missouri  river  from  Omaha,  the  course  is 
nearly  north,  to  the  southeast  corner  of  Dakota,  where  it  bends 
decidedly  west  for  over  100  miles,  and  then  north  and  northwest 
for  300  miles,  where  it  turns  westward  and  heads  far  toward  the 
Pacific  ocean,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Yellowstone  coming 
in  from  the  west-southwest. 

“ These  features,  in  physical  geography,  materially  affect  the 
character  of  the  surface,  soil,  climate  and  agricultural  products 
of  Dakota.  For  instance,  one  would  naturally  expect  that  the 
heavy  bend  toward  the  west  of  the  Missouri  river  would  bear 
with  it  westward,  the  extent  of  fertile  lands,  etc.,  which  are  found 
in  Eastern  Nebraska.  Then,  too,  the  elevation  above  the  sea  at 
Yankton  is  only  about  1,100  feet,  but  from  this  on  the  ascent 
is  more  and  more  rapid. 

“ The  general  elevation  of  the  plains  about  the  foot-hills  around 
the  Black  Hills  is  from  2,500  to  3,000  feet,  and  this  is  the  highest 
part  of  the  Territory. 

“ No  mountains  lie  to  the  north  or  northwest. 

“ The  Continental  valleys  of  the  Mississippi  (and  Missouri)  pass 


MR.  BEADLE  ON  SOUTHEAST  DAKOTA.  239 

on  to  those  of  the  Red  river  of  the  North,  the  Saskatchewan  and 
the  McKenzie — to  the  Arctic  ocean.  These  streams,  or  their 
tributaries,  interlock  in  Minnesota  and  Dakota,  and  from  St. 
Paul  to  the  Missouri  river  westward  or  a little  north  of  that, 
is  the  line  of  greatest  elevation  east  of  the  Missouri  river  in 
Dakota,  being  1,500  feet  at  highest  points.  It  is  a general 
plain  or  prairie,  with  few  hills  even,  except  the  so-called  ‘ co- 
teaus,’  which  are  nine-tenths  rich  agricultural  or  grazing  lands, 
and  are  not  mountains  at  all ; merely  regions  of  land  more  ele- 
vated than  the  intervening  great  valleys. 

“ Most  people  understand  what  is  meant  by  the  ‘ Great  Plains  ’ 
of  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Colorado,  etc.  They  lie  in  an  almost  per- 
fect inclined  plain  from  the  foot  of  the  mountains  eastward  to  the 
Missouri  river,  and,  down  this  incline,  the  rivers  are  cut  like 
grooves.  The  general  surface  is  quite  uniform.  Take  this  ex- 
ample to  understand  Southern  Dakota.  It  is  composed  of  two 
such  inclined  plains  upon  a smaller  plan.  All  that  east  of  the 
Missouri  river  and  up  to  about  the  forty-sixth  parallel  is  a general 
inclined  plane,  sloping  to  the  south,  down  and  across  which  flow 
the  Big  Sioux,  the  Vermilion  and  the  Dakota  (or  James)  rivers, 
and  the  Missouri  itself.  The  northern  border  is  about  400  feet 
higher  than  the  southern.  That  part  of  the  south  half  of  Dakota 
lying  west  of  the  Missouri  is  another inclined  to  the  east — 
properly  a part  of  the  ‘ Great  Plains  ’ of  the  west  extended  up 
there.  Its  highest  part  is  about  4,000  feet  (mountains)  and 
average  lower  part  about  1,400  feet.  Down  across  it  flow  the 
Keya  Paha  and  Niobrara  (near  it  in  Nebraska),  the  White,  Chey- 
enne, Moreau,  Grand  and  Cannon  Ball  rivers.  This  region  in- 
clines more  sharply,  the  streams  are  more  swift,  and  the  country 
is  a little  more  rough  than  further  south.  The  so-called  Bad 
Lands  occupy  a small  part  only — not  over  75,000  acres — which  is 
not  good  grazing  lands.  We  will  now  briefly  refer  again  to 
each  one  of  these  regions. 

“ The  western  part  has,  especially  in  its  southeastern  quarter, 
and  along  the  Missouri  river,  a fine  body  of  agricultural  lands, 
suited  to  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats  and  corn.  As  one  passes  west 
it  becomes  more  suited  to  grazing,  and  is  covered  with  a rich 

48 


240 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


growth  of  the  best  grasses — especially  those  which,  curing  upon 
the  ground,  afford  winter  grazing.  This  has  been  amply  tried 
for  many  years  by  the  herds  kept  by,  and  for  feeding,  the 
Indians.  When  we  reach  the  valleys  of  the  Cheyenne  and 
Belle  Fourche,  the  agricultural  character  again  decidedly  im- 
proves, and  the  plains  between  these  streams  and  the  Black 
Hills  are  being  rapidly  occupied  as  farms,  stock-ranches,  vegeta- 
ble gardens,  dairy  farms,  etc.,  as  seems  most  profitable,  to  supply 
the  people  in  the  Hills  with  food.  The  valley  of  the  Belle 
Fourche  and  its  larger  tributaries,  is  very  delightful  and  fertile, 
one  of  the  loveliest  summer  views  in  the  West,  wide,  smooth 
and  beautiful.  The  French  called  it  ‘ La  Belle  Fourche  ’ — the 
beautiful  branch — i.  e.,  of  the  Cheyenne.  The  Hills  themselves 
are  a real  wonder-land.  I have  travelled  through  them  and 
been  in  the  principal  mines.  The  examination  changed  my 
opinion.  I look  upon  them  as  surpassingly  rich  in  gold.  They 
are  peculiar — different  from  other  gold  regions.  The  same  rule 
of  expectation  does  not  apply.  They  disappoint  every  one — but 
favorably.  They  are  in  gold  somewhat  as  Leadville,  Colorado, 
is  in  silver.  Within  five  years  everybody  will  recognize  this,  and 
within  ten  years  that  region  will  be  a constant  wonder  in  its  gold 
product.  I do  not  own  a cent  of  interest  there,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly. Railroads  will  be  there  in  two  years  or  less,  and  then 
machinery,  supplies  and  all  conveniences  will  be  cheaper,  so  that 
the  mines  can  be  opened  and  worked  extensively,  and  it  will  be- 
come more  than  ever  a wonder-land,  because  it  is  known,  and  not 
because  it  is  not  known. 

“ Southeastern  Dakota  has  an  area  of  35,000  square  miles,  nearly 
•every  square  foot  of  which  is  rich.  It  is  generally  well  watered, 
has  a deep  dark  prairie  loam  soil,  mixed  in  places  with  a very 
small  per  cent,  of  sandy  loam.  It  nearly  all  slopes  slightly  to  the 
south  and  receives  the  spring  rains  and  sunshine,  making  its 
seasons  early  and  its  soil  warm  to  germinate  the  spring  seed. 
Its  great  crops  are  wheat  and  corn,  men  being  divided  as  to 
'which  is  the  more  profitable  of  the  two.  Its  third  great  interest 
is  cattle-raising.  These  three  represent  about  equally  the  re- 
:sources  of  the  farmers.  As  we  go  farther  north,  wheat  domi^ 


so  UTHEA  S TERN  DA  NO  TA . 


241 


nates,  as  the  country  is  newer,  and  this  crop  can  be  more  quickly 
turned.  Farther  south,  corn  equals  wheat  in  importance,  and  in 
some  counties  stock-raising  is  chief.  Take  Yankton,  Clay  and 
Union  counties,  and  during  the  last  year  they  have  sold  about 
2,000  head  of  cattle  each,  mainly  ready  for  beef  or  to  be  fed  tem- 
porarily in  Iowa.  They  have  sold  about  3,000  head  of  hogs  each, 
and  about  one  and  a-half  million  bushels  of  wheat.  These  are 
the  three  oldest  counties. 

“ Southeastern  Dakota  has  twenty-three  organized  counties,  a 
population  of  90,000  people,  with  430  miles  of  railroad  in  opera- 
tion— perhaps  460  nearly  so.  It  will  have  700  miles  by  Novem- 
ber I,  1880.  It  has  an  excellent  advance  in  schools,  churches 
and  all  social  organizations.  Its  population  is  consolidated  and 
continuous,  and  it  is  law-abiding  and  enterprising.  Its  villages 
and  towns  are  marked  by  newspapers,  church  edifices  and 
school-houses. 

“ The  climate  is  warmer  than  would  be  expected.  Its  summer 
is  long,  and  corn  matures  and  fully  ripens  every  year.  In  win- 
ter there  are  occasional  stormy  days,  which  are  sometimes 
severe ; but  usually  the  winters  are  fair,  sunny  and  dry.  The 
United  States  Signal  Service  reports  will  show  temperature  for 
a series  of  years  at  Yankton  and  Fort  Sully — fair  tests,  except 
that  Sully  is  on  the  west  edge  of  the  best  agricultural  lands. 

“ Did  you  ever  observe  the  disappointments  that  meet  people 
who  go  by  rail  to  California,  Nevada  and  Utah  in  the  hope  of  a 
cure  for  lung  and  other  diseases?  I have  seen  them  come  back 
suffering  greatly.  The  trouble  is,  the  too  great  and  too  sudden 
change  from  the  more  damp  sea-coast  and  lake  climates,  to  that 
very  dry  air.  But  the  men  of  ’49,  the  early  overland  immigrants 
and  travellers  to  California,  were  celebrated  for  robust  health. 
Their  journey  improved  and  cured  weak  lungs,  bronchial, 
catarrhal,  and  like  diseases.  Why  ? They  went  slowly  from  one 
to  the  other.  They  travelled  by  horses  or  with  oxen  across 
Iowa,  Nebraska,  Dakota,  Wyoming,  etc.  They  took  a long 
period  of  out-door  summer  life  in  this  intermediate  region.  The 
same  treatment  will  produce  the  same  results  now.  The  region 
of  the  Missouri  valley  in  Dakota  is  the  best  in  the  world  for  such 


242 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


summer  travel  and  sojourn,  and  should  be  taken  before  the 
transfer  even  to  Colorado,  though  that  is  better  than  California 
at  first.  I do  not  extend  this  idea.  Its  statement  will  be  under- 
stood, as  the  history  of  the  early  days  gave  the  best  proof  of  its 
value.’’ 

We  add,  on  the  opposite  page,  the  meteorology  of  the  two  sta- 
tions of  the  Signal  Service  Bureau  in  Southeastern  Dakota,  and  as 
Fort  Sully  station  was  changed  to  Deadwood  in  December,  1877, 
we  have  completed  the  year  from  the  Deadwood  report,  the  lati- 
tude being  nearly  the  same,  though  the  altitude  of  Deadwood  is 
considerably  higher.  We  give  a later  meteorological  report 
from  Deadwood  and  Lead  City  farther  on. 

We  come  next  to  the  smallest,  but,  in  some'  respects,  the  most 
important  section  of  Dakota,  the  mineral  region  known  as  “ The 
Black  Hills.”  Let  Mr.  Zimri  L.  White,  the  accomplished  and 
judicious  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Tribune,  who  visited 
and  explored  the  Hills  in  the  summer  of  1879,  describe  for  us 
the  topography  and  history  of  the  region.  We  may  say  in  pass- 
ing, that  the  Black  Hills  extend  westward  into  Wyoming  Terri- 
tory, and  are  between  the  43d  and  45th  parallels  of  latitude  and 
the  103d  and  105th  meridians  of  longitude. 

“ The  Black  Hills,  or  Cheyenne  Mountains,  are  a detached 
spur  of  the  Rockies  lying  between  the  two  forks  of  the  Cheyenne 
river  (one  of  the  largest  tributaries  of  the  Missouri),  whose  con- 
fluence is  near  their  eastern  boundary.  The  North  Cheyenne, 
or  Belle  Fourche,  flowing  from  a point  in  Wyoming  Territory 
west  of  and  nearly  opposite  the  centre  of  the  Hills,  bears  off  to 
the  northeast  and  then  to  the  southeast,  forming  a sort  of  an  ox- 
bow, while  the  South  Cheyenne  separates  the  Hills  from  the 
Southern  plains.  The  area  thus  embraced  is  about  5,000  square 
miles,  and  may  be  divided  into  three  parts — rugged  mountains 
containing  mineral  veins  and  deposits,  grass-covered  foot-hills 
and  prairies,  capable  of  supporting  enormous  herds  of  cattle,  and 
fertile  valleys  which,  with  or  without  irrigation,  will  produce  all 
the  grain,  hay,  potatoes  and  other  vegetables  that  the  future 
population  of  the  Black  Hills  can  consume. 

“The  mountains  proper,  as  distinguished  from  the  foot-hills, 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


243 


cover  about  two-thirds  of  the  area  to  which  the  name  Black  Hills 
applies.  These  are  generally  steep,  covered  with  pine  forests 
or  the  bare  trunks  of  trees  that  have  been  killed  by  fires,  and 
separated  from  each  other  by  gulches  and  canons  through  which 
small  streams  flow.  These  mountains  are  remarkably  rich  in 
minerals,  although  they  have  not  been  sufficiently  explored  to 
make  it  possible  to  estimate  the  value  of  their  deposits.  The 
gold  mines  are  most  developed,  but  there  are  silver  mines  rich 
enough,  in  promise,  at  least,  to  induce  men  who  have  capital  and 
experience  to  purchase  them  and  to  invest  their  money  in  ex- 
pensive mills  for  reducing  the  ores.  Specimens  of  very  rich  cop- 
per ore  have  also  been  found,  but  I have  heard  of  no  mines  being 
worked.  Salt  deposits  have  been  uncovered,  and  machinery  is 
now  on  the  way  to  the  Hills  to  enable  the  owner  of  one  mine  to 
try  the  experiment  of  manufacturing  salt  from  the  rock.  Petro- 
leum of  excellent  quality  and  in  inexhaustible  quantities  has  also 
been  discovered,  and  many  wells  are  already  worked.  Coal  has 
been  found  in  considerable  quantities,  and  is  now  being  tested  in 
the  gold  mills  near  Deadwood.  The  gold  mines  exceed  all  others 
in  value,  and  will  probably  continue  to  do  so  as  long  as  there  is 
mining  in  the  Black  Hills,  but  some  of  the  other  mineral  deposits 
are  of  such  character  and  promise  as  to  invite  capital  and  enter- 
prise in  their  development. 

“ The  foot-hills  are  covered  with  the  richest  and  most  nutri- 
tious grasses.  Unlike  the  plains,  where  the  grass-roots  stand 
apart,  leaving  small  spots  of  bare  ground  between  them,  the 
carpet  is  close  and  thick  at  the  bottom,  like  the  tame  grass  of  a 
meadow  in  the  East,  and  when  cut  shows  a heavy  swath,  and 
cures  either  standing  or  as  hay,  retaining  its  bright,  green  color 
and  its  rich  juices.  These  foot-hills,  where  the  land  is  too  dry 
for  cultivation,  and  water  for  irrigation  is  not  available,  are  ex- 
cellently adapted  for  grazing.  The  grass  furnishes  good  feed 
all  winter,  and  the  winds  blow  the  snow  off  from  the  hills  while  it 
lies  in  the  valleys,  and  the  numerous  canons  and  bluffs  afford 
shelter  for  the  cattle  during  storms.  No  one  now  feeds  or 
shelters  his  cattle  in  the  winter ; the  value  of  individual  animals 
that  may  die  from  exposure  not  being  great  enough  to  warrant 


244 


SIOUX  CLAIMS  ro  BLACK  HILLS. 


the  extra  expense  of  such  care.  At  the  same  time  I am  inclined 
to  think  that  in  the  end  a little  feeding  and  shelter  would  pay  in 
the  better  condition  the  cattle  would  be  in  in  the  spring  and  the 
better  prices  that  would  be  realized.  It  is  estimated  that  there 
are  now  100,000  head  of  cattle  in  the  hills,  but  the  grass  seems 
hardly  to  have  been  touched.  Stock-raising  will  eventually 
become  one  of  the  most  important  industries  in  the  region. 

“The  arable  lands  of  the  Black  Hills  are  from  500  to  600 
square  miles  in  extent,  and  consist  of  bottom  lands  along  the 
streams  and  prairies  and  lower  slopes  of  the  foot-hills  between 
the  water-courses.  The  former  generally  need  no  artificial  irri- 
gation, but  the  latter  require  more  water  than  the  rains  furnish 
and  that  is  available  in  sufficient  quantity  in  the  brooks  and 
creeks.  The  agricultural  lands  are  of  marvellous  richness. 

“The  Black  Hills  were  in  the  heart  of  the  Sioux  country  until 
February,  1877,  and  were  so  jealously  guarded  by  the  Indians 
that  white  people  who  visited  them  did  so  at  the  peril  of  their 
lives.  The  Indians  did  not  live  in  the  Hills.  They  had  a super- 
stition that  the  Great  Spirit  never  intended  these  mountains  for 
the  habitation  of  man.  The  terrific  thunder  storms  which  are 
frequent  here,  perhaps  had  something  to  do  with  this  belief 
They  said  that  the  Great  Spirit  had  covered  the  Hills  with  trees 
to  furnish  the  Indians  with  tepee  poles,  and  filled  the  foot-hills 
with  antelope  and  deer  to  supply  him  with  food  when  the  buffalo 
were  scarce ; and  they  frequently  made  excursions  here,  but 
never  remained  long.  From  one  end  of  the  Hills  to  the  other,  I 
am  told,  there  are  nowhere  to  be  found  the  evidences  of  a long 
encampment  of  Indians.  The  Sioux  have  known  of  the  existence 
of  gold  in  the  Black  Hills  for  many  years.  A third  of  a century 
ago,  it  is  said,  they  showed  to  Father  De  Smet,  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic missionary,  who  spent  his  life  amongst  them,  and  in  whom 
they  had  the  most  implicit  confidence,  large  nuggets  which  they 
had  picked  up  in  the  gulches.  He  warned  them  not  to  show 
these  nuggets  to  white  men,  as  it  would  arouse  their  cupidity 
and  cause  the  Indians  to  be  driven  out  of  the  country.  Never- 
theless, rumors  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  Hills  did  get  abroad, 
and  evidences  have  been  found  that  a few  adventurers  came  here 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


245 

in  search  of  gold  many  years  ago,  and  actually  began  to  work 
the  placers.  They  were  probably  all  massacred  by  the  Indians.* 

“ Several  government  expeditions  were  made  into  the  Black 
Hills  before  that  of  General  Custer,  in  the  summer  of  1874,  and 
the  report  of  each  showed  the  presence  of  gold  and  other  min- 
erals. The  first  of  these  was  that  of  Captain  Bonneville,  in  1834. 
General  Harney  came  in  here  in  1855,  and  the  highest  peak  in 
the  Hills  was  named  in  his  honor.  Other  expeditions  led  by 
Warren  visited  the  Hills  in  i856-’57,  by  Dr.  Hayden  in  1858-59, 
and  by  General  Sully  in  1864.  The  dates  of  these  visits  I give 
on  the  authority  of  a resident  of  this  city,  as  I have  access  to  no 
records  by  which  I can  verify  them.  I have  said  that  the  explor- 
ations of  each  of  these  parties  proved  the  presence  of  gold  in 
these  mountains  ; but  no  excitement  was  caused  by  their  reports, 
because  no  one  supposed  that  the  precious  metal  existed  here 
in  sufficient  quantities  for  profitable  working.  General  Custer’s 
expedition  in  1874  is  still  remembered  by  most  newspaper 
readers.  The  practical  miners  who  accompanied  him  reported 
excellent  ‘ prospects,’  that  is,  that  in  washing  out  the  gravel  of 
the  streams  in  pans  they  obtained  gold  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  make  it  pay  for  working.  The  reports  of  these  miners  were 
received  with  incredulity  in  the  East;  and,  during  the  winter  of 
1874-75,  the  question  was  widely  discussed  whether  there  was 
gold  in  the  Black  Hills  or  not. 

“ So  great  was  the  public  interest  in  the  discoveries  reported 
by  those  who  accompanied  General  Custer  that,  in  the  summer 
of  1875,  the  Interior  Department  sent  out  an  exploring  expedi- 
tion in  charge  of  Professor  Jenney,  a young  geologist.  He  came 
into  the  Hills  with  a train  and  escort,  went  pretty  well  over 
them,  and  made  a map  of  the  country.  He  discovered  gold  in 
many  places,  and  more  than  confirmed  Custer’s  reports  of  the 
previous  year.  Professor  Jenney  did  not  visit  Deadwood  and 
Whitewood  gulches,  the  timber  being  so  thick  that  he  could  not 
get  to  them  with  his  train.  But  the  adventurous  placer-miners 
of  the  West  did  not  wait  for  a scientific  report  upon  the  country, 

* Mr.  Robert  E.  Strahorn,  in  his  “ New  West  Illustrated,”  has  traced  the  history  of  some  of  the.se 
parties  who  fell  victims  to  their  adventurous  spirit.  Some  of  them  commenced  operations  iia 
placer-mining  as  early  as  1852. 


PROFESSOR  JENNEV'S  EXPLORATION. 


246 

but  braving  the  hostility  of  the  Indians  and  other  dangers,  they 
began  to  settle  along  the  streams  in  the  Hills  in  the  summer  of 
1 875-,  and  to  wash  out  the  gold  dust.  The  government  forbade 
all  persons  to  enter  this  country,  and  the  President,  I believe, 
issued  a proclamation  warning  people  against  invading  the  ter- 
ritory that  had  been  set  apart  for  the  Indians.  But  it  is  impos- 
sible to  keep  an  old  placer-miner  out  of  gulches  where  there  are 
' pay  streaks ; ’ he  will  go  through  fire  and  water  to  reach  new 
diggings.  Hundreds  of  men  came  in  here  in  spite  of  the  proc- 
lamation and  in  spite  of  the  orders  to  military  commanders  to 
arrest  people  found  on  the  road  or  in  the  Hills.  The  soldiers 
even  came  to  the  Black  Hills,  and  going  up  and  down  the 
gulches,  gathered  up  the  miners,  confiscated  their  provisions, 
and  took  them  to  Fort  Laramie  or  to  the  military  posts  on  the 
Upper  Missouri.  But  the  adventurers  came  in  here  faster  than 
the  soldiers  could  take  them  out,  and  most  of  those  arrested, 
even,  as  soon  as  they  were  released,  as  they  all  were  when  a 
military  station  was  reached,  came  directly  back  if  they  had 
money  enough  to  procure  provisions.  The  government,  having 
told  the  people  through  its  exploring  expeditions  that  there  was 
gold  in  the  Black  Hills,  could  not  keep  them  out  without  send- 
ing its  whole  army  to  guard  the  avenues  of  approach,  and  the 
policy  of  forcible  removal  was  abandoned  about  the  middle  of 
November. 

“The  men  who  came  to  the  Hills  in  1875  and  the  following 
winter  settled  principally  in  the  southern  part,  on  Spring  and 
French  creeks.  Custer  City  was  the  most  important  town,  and 
Rockerville  also  became  the  centre  of  rich  placer  diggings.  The 
mines  in  that  region  were  all  in  the  gulches,  and  during  the  first 
year  considerable  quantities  of  gold  dust  were  taken  out.  I 
have  not  visited  that  region,  but  I have  been  told  by  a gentleman 
whose  experience  and  scientific  attainments  cause  one  to  have 
great  confidence  in  him,  that  there  are  on  Spring  and  French 
creeks  the  largest  placer  deposits  in  the  world.  He  saw  a man 
dig  up  a wagon-load  of  the  gravel  and  haul  it  to  a small  creek 
where  he  washed  out  ^46  worth  of  gold  from  it.  This  deposit, 
this  gentleman  says,  he  has  examined  for  a distance  of  fifteen 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


247 

miles  in  length  and  twelve  miles  in  width.  It  is  not  all  as  rich, 
by  any  means,  as  the  wagon-load  of  which  he  spoke.  Gold 
always  runs  in  streaks,  but  the  extent  of  it  is  very  great.  It  is 
not  now  available  for  the  want  of  water. 

“ When  the  discoveries  of  gold  in  Deadwood  and  Whitewood 
gulches,  on  the  site  of  this  city,  and  above  and  below  it,  were 
made,  the  first  workings  were  very  rich,  and  the  fame  of  them 
soon  attracted  the  people  here  from  all  parts  of  the  Hills.  Cus- 
ter City  was  almost  deserted,  and  for  a year  or  so  Deadwood 
was  one  of  the-  liveliest  mining  camps  in  the  country.  But, 
although  the  placer-mines  in  these  two  gulches  and  their  tribu- 
taries paid  well  for  a time,  the  prosperity  they  brought  was  only 
temporary,  and,  if  quartz  mines  had  not  been  discovered  and 
opened,  Deadwood  would  now  be  a deserted  village.  Out  of 
fifty  placer  claims,  a dozen  or  so  are  now  being  worked,  chiefly 
by  Chinamen  who  pay  to  the  owners  fifty  cents  a day  royalty 
for  each  man  who  works.  By  carefully  washing  over  the  tail- 
ings and  the  gravel  which  was  left  because  it  was  ‘ lean,’  these 
Chinamen  are  able  to  earn  from  f,i  to  $1.50  a day,  and  with  that 
they  are  contented. 

“ The  existence  of  veins  of  quartz  in  the  hills  above  Dead- 
wood  was  known  to  the  early  miners  here,  but  none  of  them 
seem  to  have  appreciated  their  value.  When  they  ‘ prospected  ’ 
them  they  showed  only  from  f,2  to  $15  worth  of  gold  to  a ton 
of  ore,  and  nobody  seemed  to  think  that  ore  of  that  grade  would 
pay  for  mining  and  milling.  And  the  first  attempts  to  reduce 
the  quartz  here  were  failures  pecuniarily,  and  none  of  them  can 
be  said  to  have  been  really  profitable  until  the  California  capi- 
talists came  here,  developed  the  mines,  and  began  to  take  out 
and  reduce  the  ore  on  a large  scale. 

“Very  few  valuable  quartz  gold  mines,  or  mines  which  by 
sufficient  development  "have  been  proved  to  be  valuable,  have 
yet  been  discovered  outside  of  the  great  belt  above  this  town. 
One  or  two  mines  which  promise  well  are  said  to  have  been 
opened  in  the  Rockford  District,  about  twenty-five  miles  south 
of  here.  I shall  visit  that  region  and  probably  write  a letter 
from  there.  A new  mine  has  also  been  discovered  near  Custer 


CLIMATE  OF  THE  BLACK  HILLS. 


248 

City,  from  which  some  astonishingly  rich  ore  has  been  taken. 
The  reduction  of  about  800  pounds  of  that  ore,  and  the  obtain- 
ing from  it  of  gold  at  the  rate  of  ^147  a ton,  has  caused  con- 
siderable excitement  in  Deadwood. 

“In  closing  this  general  description  of  the  Black  Hills,  I may 
say  that  the  country  looks  as  though  it  had  been  settled  ten  years 
instead  of  three.  In  the  mines  it  is  difficult  to  realize  the  pos- 
sibility of  accomplishing  as  much  as  has  been  done  in  two 
years.  The  farms  that  are  cultivated  have  already  lost  their 
appearance  of  newness,  if  they  ever  had  it.  Good  roads  have 
been  built  in  every  direction  over  and  around  the  Hills,  and 
travel  is  as  safe  upon  them  as  upon  a New  England  or  New 
York  turnpike.  Two  years  ago  (in  1877)  camping  equipage  was 
a necessity  for  the  traveller,  now  there  are  comfortable  wayside 
inns  every  twenty-five  miles,  and  frequently  at  shorter  intervals. 
The  game  that  abounded  in  the  hills  has  disappeared,  and  civiliza- 
tion has  already  gained  the  mastery. 

“ The  climate  of  the  Black  Hills  is,  on  the  whole,  delightful. 
The  elevation  is  sufficient  (from  4,000  to  6,000  feet)  to  make  the 
air  pleasant  without  being  too  much  rarefied  for  health  or  com- 
fort. The  midday  sun  is  sometimes  hot,  but  on  no  one  of  the 
past  ten  days  (in  the  middle  of  July)  has  the  heat  been  oppres- 
sive, and  the  nights  are  delightfully  cool.  I have  slept  under 
blankets  every  night  since  I came  to  Deadwood,  and  one  or  two 
evenings  I found  a light  overcoat  comfortable  when  going  out 
upon  the  street.  The  winters  here  are  rather  long,  the  latitude 
being  about  that  of  St.  PaLil,  Minnesota ; but  the  towns  are  all 
situated  in  the  canons  and  surrounded  by  high  n^ountains,  which 
shield  them  from  the  cold  winds  and  temper  the  rigor  of  the 
climate.  During  the  last  three  years  the  summers  have  been 
long  enough  to  ripen  all  kinds  of  grain  and  vegetables.  During 
the  first  year  after  the  settlement  of  Deadwood  there  was  con- 
siderable sickness  here,  the  prevailing  disease  being  mountain 
fever.  This  was  probably  caused  by  digging  up  the  gulches,  the 
banks  of  which  in  many  places  were  covered  with  a rank  growth 
of  vegetation.  There  is  now  probably  no  more  healthful  place 
in  the  United  States  than  this  city,  and  I know  of  few  more  com- 
fortable ones  in  summer,  if  the  climate  alone  is  considered.” 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


249 

Sergeant  J.  O’Dowd,  of  the  United  States  Signal  Service  at 
Deadwood,  furnishes  the  following  summary  of  the  meteorology 
of  that  city  for  the  year  ending  June  30th,  1879.  The  observations 
from  July  ist  to  December,  1878,  were  taken  at  Lead  City,  two 
miles  from  Deadwood,  and  at  several  hundred  feet  higher  altitude- 


1878. 

Mean 

Temperature. 

Mean 

Humidity. 

H ighest 

Temperature. 

Lowest 

Temperature. 

Prevailing 

Wind. 

1 

Total  rainfall, 

inches. 

No.  days  rain 

or  snow  fell. 

July 

67.14 

63-25 

92 

41 

s. 

5-77 

16 

August 

65-85 

62.80 

85 

46 

s. 

2.61 

9 

September  .... 

49-15 

63.16 

86 

27 

s. 

2.06 

8 

October 

39-58 

60.50 

72 

6 

N.  W. 

1. 81 

13 

November  .... 

36.72 

63.67 

66 

3 

s. 

0.75 

3 

December  .... 

18.  26 

72.47 

54 

—25 

N. 

3-63 

1 1 

1879. 

January  

21.76 

65-85 

56 

—24 

s.  w. 

0.58 

3 

February ..... 

24-45 

68.80 

53 

— 1 2 

s.w. 

0. 72 

5 

March 

34.80 

62.00 

71 

—5 

s.  w. 

0.51 

9 

1 April 

45-50 

53-00 

71 

20 

N.  E. 

7-69 

8 

May 

53-8o 

63.20 

81 

29 

N.  E. 

5-03 

13 

June 

61.30 

57-40 

92 

37 

S. 

4.67 

18 

Totals  for  year  . 

43-19 

63.01 

92 

—25 

35-83 

1 16 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  heaviest  rainfall,  23.16  inches  of 
the  35.83,  of  the  year  was  in  the  months  of  April,  May,  June  and 
July — the  months  in  which  the  crops  would  be  most  benefited. 

The  mines  of  the  Black  Hills  yield  both  gold  and  silver,  though 
the  silver  deposits  were  not  discovered  till  some  time  after  active 
mining  for  gold  had  made  the  region  widely  known.  The  gold 
mines  may  be  included  in  four  classes:  i.  Placers.  2.  Quartz 
veins  between  slate  walls.  3.  Quartz  veins  between  porphyry 
walls.  4.  Cement  deposits. 

The  placers  in  the  Black  Hills  are  of  great  extent,  and  some 
of  them  have  yielded  very  large  sums.  Elsewhere  in  this  work 
we  have  described  the  methods  of  placer  mining,  the  use  of  the 
pan,  the  rocker,  the  Tom,  the  sluice  and  the  hydraulic  pipe, 
flume  and  sluice,  and,  as  placer  mining  is  much  the  same  in  the 
Black  Hills  as  elsewhere,  it  is  not  necessary  for  us  to  repeat 
what  we  have  said  of  these  processes.  Two  points,  however, 


2 5o  dry  gulches  in  the  black  hills. 

may  be  noticed  : i st.  That  dry  placers  or  gulches — that  is,  beds 
of  clay  or  gravel  containing  a considerable  amount  of  free  gold, 
but  at  such  a distance  from  water  having  sufficient  head  to  wash 
the  gold,  and  consequently  requiring  that  the  dirt  should  be 
brought  to  the  water,  or  the  water  to  the  placer  at  considerable 
cost — are  not  usually  considered  very  profitable  to  work  unless 
the  amount  of  gold  is  large.  In  the  Black  Hills  these  dry  placers 
or  gulches  have  proved  so  rich  that  the  dirt  has  been  brought 
from  some  of  them  by  wagon  loads  to  the  water,  and  where  they 
were  more  extensive,  it  has  been  found  profitable  to  construct 
ditches  or  flumes  of  several  miles’  length,  to  bring  a mountain 
stream  to  supply  the  pipes  for  hydraulic  mining.  These  placers 
seem  to  be  distributed  all  over  the  hills.  The  first  were  discov- 
ered near  the  southern  border,  on  Spring  and  French  creeks, 
near  the  present  sites  of  Custer  City  and  Rockerville.  Others  still 
more  profitable  have  been  discovered  near  Deadwood ; and 
nearly  all  the  gulches  between  the  two  points,  a distance  of  fifty 
or  sixty  miles,  yield  rich  pay-dirt,  and  most  of  them  are  profit- 
ably worked.  These  placers  are  so  rich,  and  there  are  so  many 
of  them  yet  undeveloped,  that  placer  mining  will  probably  be 
conducted  with  profit  here  for  many  years  to  come.  But  second, 
it  is  the  natural  law  of  placers,  that  after  a period  of  time, 
' which  may  be  longer  or  shorter  according  to  their  extent  and 
depth,  and  the  thoroughness  with  which  they  are  explored,  they 
are  worked  out  and  become  worthless.  To  the  penniless  miner 
they  offer  the  chance  of  acquiring  a fortune ; but  no  man  should 
buy  into  a placer  mine,  with  the  impression  that  he  has  a per- 
manent property.  It  is  good  so  long  as  it  lasts,  and  how  long 
that  may  be  it  is  hard  to  say.  A placer  claim  in  the  Black  Hills 
extends  300  feet  along  the  gulch,  and  from  rim  to  rim. 

“The  second  class  of  gold  mines  found  in  the  Black  Hills — 
quartz  in  slate,  or  between  slate  walls — is  represented  by  the 
great  ‘ belt  ’ above  Deadwood,  on  which  the  mammoth  mine's  of 
the  Hills  are  situated.  The  country  rock,  that  is  the  rock  of 
which  the  mountains  are  formed,  is  micaceous  slate  which  has 
been  thrown  up  at  an  angle  of  about  50°.  Between  the  walls 
of  this  slate  is  a vein  of  brown  quartz  containing  free  gold  in 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


2^)1 


small  quantities,  and  separated  from  the  country  rock  on  each 
side  by  a layer  of  chloride  slate  often  containing  more  gold  than 
the  quartz  itself.  The  vein  is  of  enormous  width — from  40  to 
1 50  feet — but  is  frequently  divided  by  ‘ horses  ’ of  slate,  or  large 
bodies  of  that  substance  extending  into  or  across  the  vein.  The 
rock  in  these  ‘ horses  ’ is  sometimes  rich  enough  to  work,  but 
generally  is  quite  barren. 

“ There  are  two  theories  of  the  formation  of  these  veins ; and 
while  there  seems  to  be  sufficient  ore  in  all  the  large  mines  for 
present  purposes,  the  future  of  these  properties  may  depend  in 
great  degree  upon  which  of  these  theories  proves  to  be  the  cor- 
rect one.  The  first  is  that  advanced  by  Professor  Jenney,  the 
young  geologist  who  was  sent  to  explore  the  Black  Hills  in  1875 
for  the  Interior  Department,  and  who  is  now  a resident  of  Dead- 
wood.  He  holds  that  these  ledges  of  gold-bearing  rock  are  true 
fissure  veins — ‘ interlaminated  fissures,’  he  calls  them,  that  is, 
fissures  opened  between  the  layers  of  the  slate  rock,  and  not 
across  the  line  of  stratification.  The  auriferous  quartz,  he  says, 
has  been  formed  by  the  water  solutions  which  have  come  up 
from  below.  He  accounts  for  the  ‘ horses  ’ of  slate  in  the  vein 
by  likening  the  cleaving  of  the  rock  to  the  splitting  of  a piece 
of  oak  wood.  When  a wedge  is  driven  into  it,  particles  of  the 
wood  cling  from  side  to  side  across  the  opening  made  by  the 
wedge.  So,  he  thinks,  when  the  rock  was  opened,  bodies  of 
slate  extended  across  from  one  wall  to  the  other,  and  remained 
in  that  position  when  the  aqueous  solution  from  below  came  up, 
surrounded  them,  and  deposited  the  gold-bearing  quartz.  He 
explains  the  fact  that  the  slate  walls  and  horses  contain  gold  by 
saying  that  the  slate,  which  had  minute  spaces  between  its  layers, 
soaked  up  the  mineral-bearing  fluid,  which  in  some  cases  re- 
placed the  particles  of  slate.  As  a rule,  the  impregnation  of  the 
slate  becomes  less  as  the  distance  from  the  wall  of  the  vein 
increases.  Believing  the  veins  to  be  true  fissures.  Professor 
Jenney  supposes  that  they  extend  into  the  earth  for  an  indefinite 
distance,  and  probably  grow  richer  in  their  lower  portions.  Pro- 
fessor Jenney  believes  that  after  these  veins  were  formed  the 
ocean  covered  what  are  now  the  Black  Hills,  and  that  by  its 


252  DIVERSE  THEORIES  ABOUT  THE  LODES. 

action  it  tore  down  the  surface,  scattering  fragments  of  the  vein 
all  over  the  country.  Evidences  of  marine  action  are  easily  to 
be  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mines. 

“ The  other  theory  held  by  several  geologists  of  much  learn- 
ing and  experience  is  that  the  vein  matter  was  precipitated  from 
an  aqueous  solution  that  covered  it.  Their  explanation  and 
argument  is  this:  The  foot-wall  of  these  veins  is  slate,  a forma- 
tion which  everybody  knows  is  of  aqueous  origin.  The  vein  of 
quartz  is  deposited  on  this  slate  parallel  with  its  line  of  stratifica- 
tion, just  as  one  layer  of  rock  is  deposited  on  another.  Above 
the  vein  we  also  find  slate,  and  above  that,  where  it  has  not  been 
carried  away  by  the  action  of  the  elements,  a cement  formation 
also  of  aqueous  origin.  These  facts  point  conclusively  to  a hori- 
zontal deposit  of  the  vein  matter  on  a slate  bed.  The  precipi- 
tant was  probably  oxide  of  iron,  and  it  is  therefore  very  natural 
that  those  ores  containing  the  largest  proportion  of  oxide  of  iron 
should  be  the  richest  in  gold,  as  they  are.  After  all  these  de- 
posits had  been  made,  the  hills  were  gradually  thrown  up  in 
their  present  forms  under  water. 

“ If  the  true  fissure  vein  theory  is  correct  (and  it  is  the  one 
most  generally  accepted  by  the  most  experienced  miners),  then 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  ore  extends  far  into  the 
bowels  of  the  earth.  And  even  if. the  theory  of  an  aqueous 
deposit  or  precipitation  is  accepted,  the  fields  over  which  these 
deposits  took  place  may  have  been  so  great  that  when  turned 
up  upon  their  edges  they  may  be  practically  inexhaustible. 
These  quartz  veins  between  slate  strata  seem  to  be,  in  many 
respects,  the  analogues  of  the  ‘ contact  lodes  ’ of  silver  in  Col- 
orado, and  may  have  had  a similar  origin. 

“ The  quartz  veins  between  porphyry  walls  have  not  been 
sufficiently  developed  to  make  it  safe  to  give  an  opinion  in 
regard  to  them.  Some  of  the  best  mines  of  this  class  are  situ- 
ated in  Strawberry  gulch,  about  seven  miles  east  of  Deadwood, 
and  in  some  of  them  considerable  bodies  of  ore  have  been  found. 
In  another  year,  when  a few  mills  shall  have  been  erected  near 
them  for  the  purpose  of  working  their  ores,  and  development 
has  been  pushed  further,  more  will  be  known  of  their  value.  It 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


2^3 

is  an  interesting  fact  that  they  have  already  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  rich  California  miners  and  capitalists  who  have  de- 
veloped the  great  ‘ belt  ’ above  Deadwood,  and  that  it  is  possible 
that  they  may  purchase  one  of  the  most  promising  of  them  and 
see  what  it  contains. 

“ In  many  of  the  placer  mines,  a little  below  the  bed  of  the 
stream  but  considerably  above  bed  rock,  a layer  of  hard  cement, 
consisting  of  sand,  gravel,  and  boulders,  and  carrying  free  gold 
held  together  in  one  hard,  conglomerate  mass  by  oxide  of  iron, 
has  been  found.  This  substance  has  been  a great  obstacle  to 
gulch  miners  on  some  claims.  They  had  no  means  of  crushing 
it  to  free  the  gold,  and  to  remove  it  in  order  to  get  at  the  aurif- 
erous gravel  beneath  was  very  expensive.  On  the  hill-tops, 
which  have  withstood  best  the  action  of  the  elements,  similar 
cement  deposits  have  also  been  found,  varying  from  one  and 
a-half  to  twelve  and  eighteen  feet  in  thickness.  Some  of  these 
are  very  rich  in  gold  and  others  very  lean.  A number  of  mines 
have  been  opened  on  the  cement  beds  and  are  now  working 
successfully,  while  others  have  already  worked  out  their  pay  ore. 
The  rock  is  reduced  in  the  same  manner  as  quartz,  by  stamping 
and  amalgamating.  A cement  deposit  may  be  very  valuable  as 
long  as  it  lasts,  and  may  bring  to  its  owners  large  profits,  but  its 
value  depends  entirely  upon  its  extent  and  character.  Like  a 
placer  (and  it  is,  in  fact,  nothing  but  a solidified  placer),  it  will 
some  day  be  worked  out  and  become  worthless.  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  sell  these  cement  beds  and  the  mines  opened  on 
them- as  true  fissure  veins,  which  they  are  not.  Very  possibly 
the  ore  ‘ prospects  ’ and  ‘ mills  ’ as  high  as  it  is  represented  ; 
but  the  wrong  done  to  the  proposed  purchaser  consists  in  giving 
the  impression  that  it  is  a true  fissure  vein,  when  it  is  in  reality 
only  a solidified  placer  and  may  and  probably  will  soon  become 
exhausted.” 

The  gold  mines,  aside  from  the  placers  and  cement  deposits, 
in  the  Black  Hills,  have  been  again  classified  by  the  mining  men 
as  those  on  the  Bonanza  Belt  in  the  neighborhood  of  Deadwood, 
and  those  not  on  the  belt.  The  mines  on  the  belt  which  have 
attained  the  greatest  reputation  are  the  Father  De  Smet,  the 


2 54  GRADE  GOLD  ORES  PROFITABLE  HERE. 

Deadwood,  the  Golden  Terra,  the  Highland,  the  Homestake,  the 
Grant  and  the  Old  Abe  mines.  The  Roderick  Dhu  and  the 
Pierce  are  also  believed  to  be  on  continuations  of  this  belt. 
The  belt  is  about  two  miles  in  length  and  from  loo  to  200  feet 
in  width. 

The  mines  not  on  the  belt,  in  the  vicinity  of  Deadwood,  are 
the  Caledonia,  which  comprises  four  claims,  and  covers  in  all 
territory  1,500  feet  long  and  1,100  in  width,  though  in  two  parcels. 
Several  deposit  mines  are  also  included  in  this  class,  and  a num- 
ber of  smaller  mines.  There  are  also  new  mines  of  great  promise 
at  Rockford,  about  twenty-five  miles  east  of  Deadwood,  and  at 
Custer  City  and  Rockerville,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Black 
Hills. 

The  silver  mining  thus  far  has  been  mostly  at  Galena,  on  Bear 
Butte  creek,  about  twelve  miles  east  of  Deadwood.  There  are 
other  silver  deposits,  but  these  are  the  most  promising.  The 
ores  are  chiefly  sulphurets  and  chlorides,  mixed  with  quartz, 
oxide  of  iron  and  manganese,  antimony  and  arsenic.  There  are 
some  rich  carbonates,  but  they  do  not  appear  in  very  large  quan- 
tities ; there  are  also  some  specimens  of  horn  silver  and  a little 
free  silver.  The  ores  average  from  30  to  150  ounces  of  silver  to 
a ton,  the  low-grade  ores  being  most  abundant.  The  immense 
cost  of  transportation  (^40  a ton)  has  prevented  the  mining  of 
low  grade  ores,  and  a small  smelter,  working  imperfectly,  has 
charged  ^75  per  ton  for  reduction.  These  difficulties  will  soon 
cease,  as  railroads,  and  larger  and  better  smelters  come  in. 

A large  proportion  of  the  gold  veins  produce  an  ore  which 
elsewhere  would  be  regarded  as  of  low  grade ; many  of  them 
running  at  from  ^9  or  ^10  to  ^13  or  $15  per  ton.  But  they  are 
so  favorably  situated,  that  they  can  be  run  by  chutes  directly 
into  the  mill,  without  being  handled  at  all.  The  large  mills  of 
I 20  stamps  or  more  are  also  run  at  much  less  proportional  ex- 
pense than  the  smaller  ones,  while  they  do  ten  times  as  much 
work.  Gold  can  be  mined  and  milled  at  these  mines  and  mills 
at  from  |2  to  ^5  per  ton,  and  the  mines  are  so  situated  that  the 
expense  is  not  likely  to  increase  for  a long  time  to  come.  While 
the  grade  of  the  ores  is  low,  the  quantity  seems  to  be  inexhausti- 
49 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


255 


ble,  and  the  quality  Improves  slightly  as  the  depth  increases. 
Thus  It  comes  to  pass  that  ores  yielding  from  ^9  to  ^15  per  ton 
pay  a better  profit,  as  well  as  a steadier  one,  than  ores  of  much 
richer  grade,  which  are  more  difficult  to  mine,  less  easily  milled 
and  which  must  be  carried  to  greater  distances  to  be  marketed 
successfully.  Mr.  White  states  the  yield  of  the  Black  Hills  mines 
in  1878  as  ^3,500,000;  in  1879  as  about  $4,500,000,  and  in  1880 
as  probably  $6,000,000. 

The  Black  Hills  form  the  most  elevated  portion  of  Dakota, 
indeed  the  only  portion  which  rises  above  2,000  feet,  or  generally 
above  1,500  to  1,800  feet. 

The  following  table  gives  the  altitude  of  the  principal  summits 
and  towns  of  this  region,  though  some  of  the  points  named  are 
in  the  Wyoming  portion  of  the  Hills: 


Inyan  Kara  Peak  . 

. . 6,500 

Harney’s  Peak 

. . . 7,440 

Bare  Butte 

4,800 

Belle  Fourche  . 

• • • 3.734 

Floral  Valley  .... 

6,196 

Castle  Creek  Valley  . 

. . . 6,136 

Crook’s  Monument  . 

. . 7,600 

Dodge’s  Peak  . 

. . . 7,300 

Terry’s  Peak  .... 

7,200 

Warren’s  Peak 

6,900 

Custer’s  Peak  .... 

. . 6,750 

Crow  Peaks 

6,200 

Devil’s  Tower .... 

. . 5,100 

Deadwood  .... 

. . . 4,425 

Rapid  City  .... 

• • 3.175 

Rockerville 

. . . 4,125 

Crook  City  .... 

• • 3.725 

Pactola  (estimated ) * 

4,000 

Rochford  (estimated) 

. . 4,500 

Custer  City  “ 

4,200 

The  present  population  of  the  cities  and  settlements  of  the 
Black  Hills  is  hardly  less  than  30,000,  and  may  exceed  that.  A 
year  and  a half  since  (In  January  or  February,  1879),  it  was  esti- 
mated at  18,000,  and  was  probably  divided  very  much  as  follows  ♦ 


Deadwood  .... 

Rapid  City 

500 

Golden  Gate  . . . 

700 

Crook  City 

500 

Lead  City  .... 

. . . 2,500 

Custer  City 

400 

Rockerville 

Spearfish  City  . ■ . 

250 

Rochford  . . . . 

600 

Hill  City 

200 

Sturgis  City 

...  300 

Galena 

250 

Sheridan  .... 

Pactola,  Hayward  and  other 

Tigerville  .... 
Central  City  . 

settlements 

. 2,500 

Gayville  .... 

Total  .... 

. 18,000 

2 56  BLACK  HILLS  BOTH  AGRICULTURAL  AND  MINING. 

The  Black  Hills  region  is  primarily,  then,  a mining  region  ; 
one  which  has  been  very  largely  taken  possession  of  by  capital- 
ists, and  its  mining  operations  conducted  on  a scale  which  has 
been  hardly  equalled  elsewhere  in  the  West;  its  stamp-mills 
aggregating  more  than  1,500  stamps,  and  these  generally  of  the 
largest  and  most  powerful  character,  and  its  gold  production 
larorer  than  in  the  same  number  of  mines  elsewhere.  This  char- 

o 

acter  of  the  region  will  be  likely  to  continue  and  increase,  for 
years  to  come.  But  it  would  be  a great  mistake  to  suppose,  as 
some  have  supposed,  that  the  Black  Hills  must  be  dependent 
wholly  or  mainly  upon  other  regions  for  its  supplies  of  food, 
clothing  or  manufactures.  The  valleys  and  foot-hills,  as  well  as 
much  of  the  hill  country  itself,  are  covered  to  a great  depth  with 
an  exceedingly  rich  soil,  and  its  production  of  grains,  root  crops, 
and  market  garden  vegetables  and  fruits  will  be  ample  ere  long 
for  the  supply  of  the  50,000  or  75,000  people  who  will  gather 
there.  Those  portions  of  the  Hills  and  adjacent  country  which 
are  not  suited  to  mining  or  farming  are  admirably  adapted  to 
grazing,  and  even  portions  of  the  much  berated  “ Bad  Lands  ” 
are  covered  with  rich  and  nutritious  grasses.  It  is  just  the 
region  for  dairy-farming,  and  the  mining  towns  will  furnish  a 
ready  and  profitable  market  for  the  milk,  butter  and  cheese 
which  can  be  produced.  Sheep-farming  will  also  prove  profit- 
able here,  though  perhaps  the  Cotswolds,  Leicesters,  Southdowns 
and  Lincolns  would  pay  better  than  the  smaller  wool  sheep  ; for 
the  market  for  mutton  will  be  close  at  hand,  and  the  combing 
wools  will  bring  as  good  prices  as  the  felting  wools,  though  for 
other  purposes.  We  see  no  reason  why  this  may  not  become 
the  region  for  the  production  of  the  best  quality  of  mutton. 

The  fine  water-powers  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  coal  mines  which 
are  readily  accessible,  as  well  as  the  large  deposits  of  copper, 
lead  and  iron  which  are  awaiting  development,  must  ere  long 
make  it  an  important  manufacturing  region,  and  in  a few  years 
we  may  expect  to  see  the  immense  quantities  of  mining  and 
agricultural  machinery  which  are  needed,  as  well  as  all  the  mani- 
fold manufactures  of  wool  and  iron  which  are  needed  there,  pro- 
duced on  the  spot  instead  of  being,  as  now,  brought  from  Chi- 


. OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  25/ 

cago,  the  capital  of  a treeless  region,  across  800  or  1,000  miles 
of  prairie,  to  a region  of  forest  growths. 

For  so  new  a country,  the  educational  and  religious  institutions 
of  this  as  of  other  sections  of  Dakota  are  of  a high  order.  Not 
Deadwood  alone,  but  all  the  new  towns  of  the  Black  Hills  have 
excellent  schools  and  good  churches.  For  these  the  whole  Ter- 
ritory is  largely  indebted  to  the  active  exertions  and  excellent  in- 
fluence of  the  late  Governor  Howard  and  his  efficient  coadjutors. 
The  social  condition  of  all  parts  of  the  Territory  is  greatly  higher 
than  that  of  most  new  settlements.  Mr.  White  writes  of  the 
towns  of  the  Black  Hills : “ Deadwood  is  a remarkably  quiet, 
orderly,  law-abiding  town.  This  is  the  more  remarkable  when 
it  is  remembered  that  at  the  time  it  was  first  settled  this  was  an 
Indian  reservation,  over  which  the  Territorial  authorities  had  no 
jurisdiction. 

“ The  people  who  came  here  organized  a temporary  govern- 
ment of  their  own,  the  only  sanction  of  which  was  common  con- 
sent, but  its  laws  were  recognized  and  obeyed  for  about  a year 
and  a half.  When  the  treaty  with  the  Sioux  was  completed  in 
February,  1877,  opening  the  hills  to  settlement,  the  government 
that  had  been  improvised  was  dissolved,  but  the  Territorial 
officers  did  not  arrive  here  until  forty  days  later,  and  in  the 
meantime  there  was  not  even  the  semblance  of  a government, 
and  yet  order  was  preserved. 

“There  are  public  gambling-houses  in  Deadwood,  but  they 
are  not  numerous,  nor  do  they  thrust  themselves  upon  the  atten- 
tion of  the  stranger  by  open  doors  or  bands  of  music.  The 
gambling  is  almost  without  exception  conducted  in  back  and 
second-story  rooms,  and  the  proprietors  of  the  houses  are  not 
apparently  having  a prosperous  time  of  it.  There  is  one  variety 
theatre  here,  and  although  I have  not  attended  one  of  its  per- 
formances, its  programme  contains  nothing  that  seems  to  be 
objectionable  as  variety  shows  go.  Its  performances  close  at  a 
seasonable  hour.  There  is  also  one  dance-house  on  Main  street. 
Of  drinking-saloons  there  are  of  course  an  abundance. 

“ On  the  other  hand,  Deadwood  is  a city  of  homes.  Small  but 
tastefully  built  cottages  are  springing  up  by  scores  on  all  the 


258 


RAILROADS  IN  DAKOTA. 


residence  streets,  and  people  who  are  in  business  here  have 
brought  their  families.  Any  newcomer  will  find  intelligent, 
refined,  cultivated  society  here  for  himself  and  family.  Religious 
organizations  have  been  established,  schools  founded ; and 
remote  as  the  Black  Hills  are,  and  difficult  of  access,  no  one 
need  hesitate  to  make  his  home  here  through  fear  that  he  will 
not  find  good  society.  Even  the  people  who  are  seeking  their 
fortunes  in  the  remote  gulches  are  by  no  means  barbarians. 
Many  of  them  are  well  educated,  and  are  respected  in  the  dis- 
tant homes  they  have  left,  although  they  may  now  have  to  rough 
it  and  put  up  with  many  privations. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

IDAHO 

Idaho  is  one  of  the  Central  or  Interior  States  or  Territories 
of  the  northern  tier,  in  form  much  like  a huge  chair.  Its  northern 
and  very  narrow  boundary  (at  the  top  of  the  chair)  is  British 
America,  while  the  seat  of  the  chair  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Montana.  The  Bitter  Root  Mountains,  one  of  the  principal 
ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  form  the  eastern  boundary 
between  Idaho  and  Montana,  and  between  it  and  Wyoming  the 
boundary  follows  the  iiith  meridian  west  from  Greenwich.  On 
the  south,  following  the  42d  parallel,  it  is  bounded  by  Utah  and 
Nevada;  on  the  west  it  is  bounded  by  Oregon  and  Washington 
Territory,  the  line  being  the  1 1 7th  meridian  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Boise  river,  thence  along  the  Snake  river  for  350  miles  to  Lewis- 
ton, and  thence  northward  along  the  1 1 7th  meridian  to  British 
America.  The  southwest  corner  of  Yellowstone  Park  is  within 
the  bounds  of  Idaho.  The  Territory  lies  between  the  42d  and 
49th  parallels  of  north  latitude,  and  between  the  1 1 ith  and  1 17th 
meridians  of  longitude  west  from  Greenwich.  It  is  about  410 
miles  long  from  north  to  south,  and  a little  less  than  300  miles 
wide  at  its  widest  portion.  Its  area  as  stated  at  the  Land  Office 
is  86,294  square  miles,  or  55,228,160  acres.  There  are  very 
diverse  estimates  of  the  proportions  of  this  area  in  arable,  graz- 


ARABLE  LANDS  IN  IDAHO. 


259 

mg,  timber  and  mining  lands,  and  desert  or  worthless  lands. 
Governor  Brayman,  with  a somewhat  imperfect  acquaintance 
with  the  Territory,  of  which  only  one-eighth  has  yet  been  sur- 
veyed, makes  the  following  estimate  which  those  more  familiar 
with  the  Territory  regard  as  absurd:  “An  approximate  estimate 
of  the  quality  of  these  lands  will  afford,  suitable  for  cultivation 
in  their  natural  state,  15,000,000  acres;  capable  of  reclamation 
by  irrigation,  12,000,000  acres;  grazing  lands,  5,000,000  acres; 
timber  lands,  10,000,000  acres;  mining  tracts,  8,000,000  acres; 
the  4,228,160  acres  of  desert  are  destitute  of  timber  and  min- 
erals, and  beyond  the  reach  of  irrigation.  Large  portions  of  the 
mining  tracts  bear  timber  also.” 

The  Surveyor-General,  Hon.  W.  P.  Chandler,  with  a some- 
what wider  knowledge,  writes  at  about  the  same  time  to  the 
Land  Office : “Any  estimate  of  the  number  of  acres  of  the  vari- 
ous classes  of  land  in  this  Territory,  so  broken  in  its  surface  and 
varied  in  its  climate  and  altitude,  can  be  only  approximate.  Of 
its  total  area  of  55,228,160  acres,  I believe  12,000,000  acres  to  be 
agricultural,  either  in  its  natural  state  or  as  it  may  be  reclaimed 
by  irrigation  with  the  available  water  now  flowing  in  the  streams; 

25.000. 000  acres  pasture  lands;  10,000,000  acres  timber  lands; 
and  the  remainder,  8,228,160  acres,  may  be  considered  worthless, 
consisting  of  inaccessible  mountain  peaks  and  lava  beds.” 

The  surveyor-general  would  probably  include  the  supposed 

8.000. 000  acres,  or  thereabout,  of  mining-lands  in  the  25,000,000 
grazing  and  the  10,000,000  acres  of  timber  lands.  This  last 
estimate  is  undoubtedly  nearer  the  truth  than  the  governor’s, 
but  in  the  amount  of  grazing  lands  which  require  always  some 
water,  it  would  seem  to  be  somewhat  excessive.  A Territory 
whose  average  rainfall  does  not  exceed  twelve  inches,  and  more 
than  three-fourths  of  that  in  the  winter  and  spring,  leaving  the 
entire  summer  and  autumn  parched  and  rainless,  cannot  well 
have  more  than  one-fourth  of  its  area  arable  land  without  irriga- 
tion. There  are  undoubtedly  fertile  valleys  in  Idaho,  where  with, 
and  in  some  years,  without  irrigation,  large  crops  can  be  raised, 
but  these  are  the  exception,  not  the  rule.  The  Territory  might 
become  a moderately  good  grazing  country,  if  its  neighbors, 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


260 

Montana,  Wyoming,  Oregon  and  Washington,  were  not  so  much 
better  adapted  to  grazing. 

It  is  primarily  a mining  country,  and  when  the  railroads  now 
projected  or  in  progress  have  given  it  access  to  a market  at 
reasonable  rates  it  may,  if  the  Mormons  and  Indians  will  refrain 
from  killing  the  immigrants,  yield  a large  amount  of  the  precious 
metals,  and  raise  enough  grain  and  root  crops,  beef  and  mutton 
to  supply  its  own  inhabitants,  but  there  will  be  little  of  either  to 
export,  at  least  for  some  years  to  come. 

Topography,  Mountains,  Lakes,  Rivers,  etc. — Idaho  is  a moun- 
tainous Territory,  more  so,  perhaps,  than  any  other  of  the  States 
or  Territories  of  “ Our  Western  Empire,”  although  there  are  no 
summits  as  lofty  as  those  in  Colorado,  California,  Oregon,  Wash- 
ington or  Arizona.  The  altitudes  range  from  2,000  feet  above 
the  sea  in  the  Snake  River  valley  to  nearly  10,000  feet  at  the 
summit  of  some  of  its  loftiest  peaks.  Its  general  average  of 
elevation  is  above  4,000  feet.  On  its  northeast  border  from 
Lake  Pend  d’Oreille  and  Clark’s  fork  of  the  Columbia  river 
down  to  the  Lewis  or  Snake  river  at  the  Wyoming  boundary, 
the  Bitter  Root  Mountains,  one  of  the  main  ranges,  though  not 
the  highest  range,  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  separate  it  from 
Montana  ; almost  parallel  with  these  is  an  irregular  range  trend- 
ing in  general  from  northwest  to  southeast,  known  as  the  Salmon 
River  Mountains,  one  of  the  outlying  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. These  traverse  the  central  portion  of  the  State.  On  the 
west,  near  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Snake  river,  from  the  Weiser 
to  the  Salmon  river,  is  a range  of  hills  5,000  or  6,000  feet  in 
height.  The  southern  part  of  the  Territory,  south  of  the  Snake 
river,  is  an  elevated  plateau,  and  in  the  southwest  an  alkaline 
desert. 

There  are  many  valleys  between  these  ranges  of  mountains 
and  these  elevated  plateaux,  some  of  them  of  considerable  breadth 
and  fertility;  others  broad  but  barren;  others  still  narrow  and 
fertile,  and  others  yet  mere  rocky  defiles  and  canons.  There 
are  about  twenty  lakes  of  considerable  size,  and  a great  number 
of  small  lakes  or  ponds  in  the  Territory.  The  largest  are  Lakes 
Pend  d’Oreille,  Coeur  d’Alene  and  Kaniksu  in  the  north,  the  Pay- 


THE  SNAKE  RIVER  AND  ITS  TRIBUTARIES.  26 1 

ette  and  Weiser  lakes  in  d'lc  centre,  Rocky,  Bar,  Market,  De  Lacy 
and  Jackson’s  lakes  in  the  east,  and  Bear  lake  in  the  southeast. 

The  whole  of  Idaho,  except  a very  small  tract  in  the  southeast, 
belongs  to  the  river  system  of  the  Columbia  river  and  drains  into 
the  Pacific  ocean.  The  exception  is  Bear  river  and  lake  in  the 
southeast,  the  waters  of  which  are  discharged  into  the  Great 
Salt  lake.  There  is  also  a bare  possibility  that  some  one  of  the 
sources  of  the  Green  river,  one  of  the  constituents  of  the  Colorado 
of  the  West,  may  rise  in  the  mountains  of  the  southeast,  interlac- 
ing there  with  the  sources  of  the  Snake  river  or  Lewis’  fork. 
But  more  than  80,000  of  the  86,000  square  miles  of  the  Terri- 
tory are  drained  by  the  great  tributaries  of  the  Columbia  and 
their  affluents,  and  five-sixths  of  the  80,000  miles  by  the  Lewis’ 
fork  or  Snake  river  and  its  branches.  The  northeast  corner  is 
drained  by  the  Kootenai,  an  affluent  of  the  Columbia,  which 
joins  it  in  British  Columbia,  and  the  Pend  d’Oreille  or  Clark’s 
fork  crosses  the  Territory  a little  above  the  forty-eighth  parallel. 
The  Spokane  river,  another  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Columbia, 
which  flows  through  Lake  Coeur  d’Alene,  drains  a plateau  thirty 
or  forty  miles  in  width,  and  below  this  the  Snake  river,  the  largest 
constituent  of  the  Columbia,  occupies  the  whole  Territory.  The 
Palouse,  one  of  its  principal  affluents,  in  Washington  Territory, 
drains  a plateau  south  of  the  Spokane,  and  the  Snake  river  itself, 
rising  by  several  sources  in  Wyoming  Territory,  flows  northwest, 
then  southwest,  west,  northwest  and  north,  having  a course  of 
about  1,100  miles  in  this  Territory,  receiving  during  its  course 
between  thirty  and  forty  tributaries,  some  of  them,  like  the 
Salmon,  Boise,  Owyhee,  Bruneau,  Wood  and  Weiser,  being 
themselves  large  rivers.  The  Salmon  river  drains  the  central 
part  of  the  Territory.  The  Snake  river,  owing  to  its  numerous 
falls  and  rapids,  is  not  navigable  in  Idaho,  but  becomes  navigable 
at  Lewiston,  the  point  where  it  leaves  the  Territory.  At  its 
headwaters,  and  for  a considerable  distance  below,  there  are 
rich  bottom  lands,  which,  though  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  will,  it  is  thought,  prove  productive.  For  1 50  miles 
below  these,  it  flows  through  a broad  valley  of  moderately  rich 
and  fertile  land.  At  or  near  the  mouth  of  Bannack  river  it 


262 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


enters  a deep,  rocky  canon,  through  which  it  passes  for  seventy- 
five  miles.  In  this  canon  are  several  very  large  falls,  one  of 
them  the  celebrated  Shoshone  falls,  exceeding  Niagara  in  height 
{being  200  feet),  and  rivalling  it  in  the  volume  of  water  and  the 
grandeur  of  its  surroundings. 

Climate. — The  meteorology  of  Idaho  is  somewhat  meagre.  The 
Signal  Service  Department  has  but  one  station  in  the  Territory, 
that  at  Boise  City,  and  their  deficiency  has  not  been,  so  far  as  we 
are  aware,  made  up  by  private  observations.  Boise  City  is  cen- 
trally situated,  but  its  elevation  is  only  2,877  and  it  gives  but 
an  indefinite  idea  of  the  temperature,  rainfall,  etc.,  of  the  more 
elevated  tracts  where  nearly  all  the  mines  and  many  of  the  agri- 
cultural districts  are  situated.  The  following  table  and  the 
appended  note  give  all  the  particulars  furnished  by  the  Signal 
Service  office : 

METEOROLOGY  OF  BOISE  CITY,  IDAHO  TERRITORY. 

Latitude  43°  . Longitude  Ii6°  61  Elevation  above  sea-level  2,877 


1877-1878. 

Months. 

Maximum 

Temperature. 

Minimum 

Temperature. 

Mean 

Temperature. 

Range^of 

Temperature. 

Mean 

Humidity. 

Monthly  and 
Annual  Rainfall 

Monthly  and 
Annual  Mean 
Pressure. 

Direction  of  Winds 
in  the 

order  of  frequency. 

1877. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

per 

cent 

in. 

in. 

July 

106 

44 

74-9 

62 

36.8 

0-35 

29.509 

N.  E.,  N.,  S.  W. 

August 

98 

43 

73-9 

55 

33-3 

0.09 

29.572 

N.  E.,  S.,  N.,  N.  W. 

September 

91 

32 

61.0 

59 

48.0 

0.27 

29.653 

S.,  Calm,  N.  W.,  N.,  N.  E. 

October 

74 

21 

49.0 

53 

57.1 

0.85 

29.792 

S.,  Calm,  W.,  N. 

November 

63 

18 

41. 1 

45 

69.6 

2.05 

29.934 

S.,  Calm,  N.  E.,  N. 

December 

54 

8 

30-9 

46 

67.9 

O.OI 

30.074 

Calm,  W.,  N.,  S.  W. 

00 

00 

January  

55 

7 

34.3 

48 

66.2 

1.73 

30.081 

S.,  Calm,  W.,  N. 

February 

57 

28 

39-7 

29 

67-5 

2.18 

29.931 

N.  E.,  E.,  S.,  W.,  Calm. 

March 

75 

26 

48.0 

49 

1 62.0 

1.63 

29.997 

S.,  Calm,  W.,  N.  E.,  E. 

April 

77 

23  t 

51.2 

54 

5*7 

0.37 

29.914 

W.,  Calm,  N.  W.,  N.,  S.  W.,  S. 

May 

86 

29 

58.8 

57 

49.9 

1. 18 

29.961 

N.  W.,  N.,  N.  E.,  W.,  S.  E.,  E. 

June 

96 

43 

72.3 

53 

38-9 

0.86 

29.975 

N.  W.,  N.  E.,  S.,  N.  E. 

Year 

106 

7 

52-9 

99 

54-1 

11.57 

29.866 

S.,  Calm,  N.,  N.  E.,  W.,  N.  W. 

The  Signal  Service  Report  for  1878-9  varies  but  very  little  from  the  above.  The  maximum 
temperature  of  the  year  was  103°,  and  the  minimum  5°,  the  range,  98°,  varying  only  one  degree 
from  the  previous  year,  while  the  mean  was  52.7°.  The  rainfall  was  for  the  autumn  of  1878 
1. 10  inches;  for  the  winter  of  1878-9,  5.37  inches;  for  the  spring  of  1879,4.38  inches,  and  for 
the  summer  of  1879,  1.46  inches,  making  12,31  inches  in  all,  or  .74  of  an  inch  more  than  the 
previous  year.  It  is  noticeable  that  9.75  inches  of  this,  or  nearly  four-fifths,  fell  in  the  winter 
and  spring,  and  the  proportion  was  about  the  same  as  the  year  before. 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALOGY.  263 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — The  geology  of  the  Territory  has 
been  only  partially  investigated.  The  mountains,  like  the  Rocky 
Mountains  generally,  are  at  their  summits  and  on  their  western 
slopes,  granitic  or  feldspathic,  with,  perhaps,  some  metamorphic 
rocks  on  their  sides.  The  valleys  are  on  their  surface  alluvial 
or  diluvial — the  result  of  the  constant  wear  and  erosion  of  the 
steep  mountain  slopes.  Oftener  perhaps  than  in  other  States  and 
Territories,  this  debris  from  the  mountains  is  a very  fine  dust — 
especially  in  the  valleys  of  the  Salmon  and  Snake  rivers.  The 
gold  washed  out  of  the  veins  or  lodes  in  the  mountains  has  been 
ground  by  attrition  to  the  finest  flour,  so  fine  that  although  all 
the  sand  and  the  soil  along  those  river  valleys  for  many  miles 
contain  large  quantities  of  it,  it  could  not  be  separated  by 
washing,  and  was  only  to  be  secured  by  running  it  very  slowly 
over  electro-plated  silver  plates,  covered  with  mercury. 

In  the  centre  of  the  southern  half  of  the  Territory  there  is  an 
extensive  volcanic  plateau,  inaccessible  and  unexplored,  destitute 
of  soil  or  vegetation.  The  Bear  river  region,  in  Southeastern 
Idaho,  as  well  as  that  bordering  on  the  Yellowstone  Park,  is  vol- 
canic in  its  character.  Among  its  minerals  gold  has  been  found 
in  the  fine  impalpable  powder  already  mentioned,  in  large  grains 
and  nuggets,  and  in  gold  veins  and  lodes  along  nearly  the  whole 
course  of  the  Snake  and  Salmon  rivers,  in  the  Sawtooth  or  Sal- 
mon river  range  of  mountains  at  almost  all  points,  and  at  many 
points  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Bitter  Root  mountains.  On 
the  east  fork  of  Salmon  river  and  about  the  sources,  and  indeed 
in  nearly  the  whole  length  of  Wood  river  and  at  the  southern 
termination  of  the  Sawtooth  range,  silver  is  very  plentiful,  and 
silver  mining  would  be  conducted  with  great  success  were  the 
facilities  of  transportation  of  the  rich  ores  less  difficult.'*'  Copper 
is  found  in  very  rich  ores — sixty-five  to  seventy  per  cent.,  and  also 
native  copper  of  great  purity  in  Bear  Lake  county,  and  in  the 

* This  Wood  river  region,  a district  about  eighty  miles  long  and  forty  miles  wide,  is  just 
now  the  scene  of  great  excitement  from  the  discovery  of  a number  of  rich  silver  lodes  on  both 
sides  of  Wood  river.  It  is  declared  by  some  to  be  a second  Leadville,  and  hundreds  and  per- 
haps thousands  are  flocking  thither  from  Utah,  Nevada,  California  and  some  from  Northern 
Colorado.  Whether  they  will  come  to  stay  remains  to  be  seen. 


264 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


Snake  river  copper  mining  district.  It  is  also  combined  with  sil- 
ver in  the  Sawtooth  range  and  the  Wood  river  district. 

Lead  in  the  form  of  galena  or  sulphuret  and  carbonate  of  lead 
is  found  in  all  the  silver  mines,  and  an  ore  yielding  about  seventy- 
eight  per  cent,  of  pure  lead  is  found  in  the  Bear  river.  Iron  is 
abundant  and  in  all  forms.  Coal  is  found  in  great  quantities 
and  of  excellent  quality  for  coking  and  furnace  purposes  along 
Bear  lake,  and  is  also  mined  at  Smith’s  fork  and  on  Irvin 
creek.  The  Mammoth  mine  here  shows  a vein  seventy  feet 
thick  of  clear  coal,  and  with  adjacent  veins,  separated  by  thin  veins 
of  clay,  will  aggregate  200  feet  in  thickness.  The  Utah  and 
Northern  Railroad,  which  passes  near,  will  soon  open  this  great 
mine  to  a market.  There  is  also  a large  bed  of  very  good  coal 
in  Northern  Idaho  near  Lewiston,  and  another  in  Boise  county, 
about  twenty-five  miles  north  of  Boise  City.  Antimony,  arsenic 
and  surphur  are  found  in  considerable  quantities,  the  latter 
especially  in  the  volcanic  districts.  In  Bear  Lake  county,  near 
the  Bear  river,  there  is  a sulphur  lake  very  heavily  encrusted  with 
sulphur,  and  a mountain  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  which  is  punt 
sulphur.  The  “ Soda  Springs,”  now  becoming  a popular  resort 
from  Salt  Lake  City,  are  in  the  same  vicinity,  near  the  Bear 
river  and  the  Utah  and  Northern  Railroad. 

Mr.  Robert  E.  Strahorn,  who  has  recently  explored  this  won- 
derful region  which  gives  so  many  evidences  of  volcanic  action, 
past  and  present,  thus  writes  of  it  in  the  JVezv  West  Illustrated 
of  December. 

“ Soda  Springs,  a hamlet  of  probably  one  hundred  souls,  is 
located  within  a stone’s  throw  of  Bear  river,  near  the  latter’s  ‘ big 
bend  ’ in  Southeastern  Idaho,  and  thirty-five  miles  east  of  Oneida 
Station,  Utah  and  Northern  Railway.  It  takes  its  name  from  a 
group  of  noteworthy  springs  in  the  vicinity,  and  thrives  mainly 
upon  the  latter’s  fast-increasing  popularity. 

“ One  spring  is  graced  with  a lively  steam  vent  which  finds 
its  way  upward  through  a massive  boulder.  Fremont  named  it 
‘ Steamboat  Spring,’  on  account  of  its  measured  puff  which  resem- 
bles that  of  an  engine.  The  waters  of  this  spring  are  utilized  in 
a comfortable  bath-house  near  by.  A group  of  four  of  the  other 


THE  SODA  AND  OTHER  SPRINGS. 


265 


springs  have  attracted  particular  attention  on  account  of  the 
curative  properties  of  the  waters.  The  strongly  mineralized  fluid 
is  also  ever  bubbling  up  from  the  depths  of  pretty  basins  in  Bear 
river,  in  Soda  creek,  along  the  streets  of  the  village — in  fact, 
everywhere  in  the  vicinity — and  is  as  pleasant  as  a beverage,  as 
it  has  been  found  exhilarating  and  strengthening  as  a tonic. 
Invalids  with  some  of  the  most  deep-set  and  loathsome  blood 
diseases  claim  to  have  found  a perfect  cure  in  these  fountains. 
A mile  distant  are  other  and  not  less  interesting  springs,  the 
waters  of  which  are  so  thoroughly  charged  with  calcareous 
matter  as  to  quickly  form  a coating  of  limestone  upon  any  object 
immersed  in  them. 

“‘V.  de  V.’  thus  humorously  writes  of  the  great  Hooper 
Spring : ‘ Hooper  Spring,  one  mile  from  the  main  town,  is  not 
surpassed  in  the  world.  Eight  or  ten  springs  all  bubble  up 
within  a radius  of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  and  all  unite  in  one  and 
flow  off  into  Soda  creek,  in  a stream  six  feet  wide  and  four  feet 
deep.  This  is  the  most  powerful  spring  in  the  world.  Its  water 
is  very  highly  charged.  It  is  surprising  how  much  people  drink. 
Five  pints  is  the  usual  draught ; ten  will  blow  a man  up ; and 
then,  if  you  can  find  his  mouth,  twenty  more  will  reunite  the 
fragments,  free  him  from  disease  and  set  him  on  his  feet,  regen- 
erated and  born  again.  The  water  from  this  spring  is  bottled 
and  sold.  It  will  when  known  become  famous  the  world  over. 
No  mineral  water  I ever  drank  has  such  a delicious  taste;  none 
causes  such  an  appetite.  The  men  that  drink  it  can’t  do  with- 
out it ; children  cry  for  it ; old  people  renew  their  youth  at  this 
fountain.’ 

“ The  Octagon  Spring  has  received  some  attention  from  Cap- 
tain Hooper,  who  has  a handsome  summer  villa  near  by,  and  in 
summer  we  find  scores  of  visitors  seated  under  the  rustic  shade^ 
drinking  the  life-saving  fluid  from  early  morn  until  late  at  night. 
We  meet  here  the  lame,  the  halt,  and  even  some  that  are  nearly 
blind,  all  testifying  to  the  wonderful  benefits  they  derive  from 
these  waters.  , The  mineral  constituents  of  these  springs  render 
them  the  best  of  alteratives,  and  very  efficacious  in  scrofulous 
and  glandular  difficulties,  and  for  all  diseases  of  the  skin.  They 
5^ 


266 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


are  also  an  excellent  diuretic,  and  contain  enough  iron  to  make 
them  of  value  as  a tonic.  One  quart  of  the  water  from  the 
‘ Octagon  Spring  ’ contains  ; 


Grains. 

Sulphate  of  magnesia 12.10 

Sulphate  of  lime 2.12 

Carbonate  of  lime 3.86 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 3.22 

Chloride  of  calcium 1.33 

Chloride  of  magnesium 1.12 

Chloride  of  sodium 2.24 

Vegetable  matter .85 


“ There  is  sufficient  carbonic  acid  gas  to  give  the  whole  a ’ 
power  over  disease.  As  a beverage  these  waters  resemble  in 
taste  the  famed  Saratoga.  A few  minutes’  walk  away  is  a beau- 
tiful spring  called  the  Ninety  Per  Cent.  It  is  all  soda  save  ten 
per  cent.  The  water  is  delicious.  It  contains  no  iron. 

“Four, miles  southeast  of  Soda  Springs  is  Swan  lake,  one  of 
the  loveliest  natural  gems  in  the  Wasatch  chain.  It  reclines  in  an 
oval  basin,  whose  rim  is  ten  feet  above  the  surrounding  country. 
The  shores  are  densely  covered  with  trees,  shrubs,  and  the  luxu- 
riant undergrowth  native  to  that  country.  The  outlet  is  a series 
of  small  moss-covered  basins,  symmetrically  arranged,  the  clear 
water  overflowinof  the  banks,  tricklinor  into  the  nearest  emerald 
tub,  then  successively  into  others,  until  it  forms  a sparkling 
stream  and  dances  away  to  a confluence  with  the  Bear  river  in 
the  valley  below. 

“ The  rim  is  apparently  formed  by  petrifaction,  and  extends 
down  as  far  as  the  eye  can  penetrate  the  clear  crystal  water. 
Timber  and  bodies  of  trees  coated  with  a calcareous  substance 
can  be  seen  in  the  depths,  but  no  bottom  has  yet  been  reached 
in  the  centre,  and  it  is  supposed  that  it  is  fed  by  subterranean 
springs  from  the  base  of  the  mountain. 

‘^Adjacent  to  this  fit  abode  for  water  nymphs  is  the  singular 
sulphur  lake,  out  of  whose  centre  liquid  sulphur  incessantly  boils 
and  coats  the  shores  with  thick  deposits,  looking  as  though  it 
might  be  a direct  out-cropping  of  Plutonian  regions.  Near  by 


THE  ICE  CAVES  OF  IDAHO. 


267 

h a mountain,  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  which  is  pure  sulphur. 
Mr.  Williams  is  now  hauling  several  tons  of  it  to  Oneida  Station 
for  shipment  to  Mr.  G.  Y.  Wallace,  of  Salt  Lake,  who  will  experi- 
ment with  it  to  ascertain  whether  it  will  pay  to  make  it  an  article 
of  commerce.  The  great  sulphur  deposit  extends  from  the  base 
of  the  mountain  to  an  unknown  depth,  width  and  breadth.  Re- 
move the  top  crust  anywhere  near  where  it  crops  out  and  you 
find  almost  pure  sulphur.  The  bed  must  be  ol  immense  area. 
You  can  load  a wagon  with  your  hands  without  pick  or  shovel 
as  quickly  as  you  could  fill  it  with  corn.  You  can  take  up  a rock 
and  touch  a match  to  it  and  it  will  burn  up,  leaving  a black  sub- 
stance which  probably  represents  the  impurity.  A piece  that 
weighs  a pound  will  leave  a lump  of  this  about  as  large  as  a pea. 

“ Four  miles  from  the  village  is  the  great  ice  cave,  which  a 
recent  visitor  describes  as  follows : ‘ This  cave  is  situated  very 
close  to  the  roadside,  on  a level  stretch  of  prairie  about  midway 
between  the  two  crossings  of  the  Bear  river.  We  commenced 
the  descent  just  as  the  heavens  were  reverberating  with  deep- 
rolling thunder  and  the  rain  pouring  down  in  a perfectly  reckless 
manner,  thereby  making  us  feel  that  it  was  an  opportune  time 
to  shelter  ourselves  beneath  the  arching  rocky  cavern.  Follow- 
ing our  guide,  we  descended  a rocky  stairway  some  twenty  feet 
t,o  a level  grassy  rotunda  some  hundreds  of  feet  in  circumference, 
walled  in  by  solid  lava  rocks.  From  this  we  descended  still  fur- 
ther over  a rugged,  rocky  pathway,  about  twenty  feet,  when  we 
found  ourselves  on  the  congealed  floor  of  the  immense  ice  cave, 
where  ice  can  be  found  all  the  year  round.  While  our  guide 
was  lighting  our  tallow  dips,  we  surveyed  the  rocky  walls  which 
surrounded  us.  The  roof,  some  ten  feet  above  our  heads,  was 
filled  with  little  niches  or  pockets,  which  had  been  utilized  by 
cave  swallows,  while  the  side  walls  were  as  perpendicular  and 
solid  as  though  hewn  by  the  hand  of  man  out  of  solid  rock. 
Coursing  our  way  over  the  ice,  which  was  apparently  firm  and 
solid  for  a distance  of  about  100  yards,  we  came  to  a huge  pile 
of  lava  rock  which  had  rolled  from  the  roof  and  almost  choked 
up  the  passage-way.  Our  guide  bade  us  follow  him,  and  we 
soon  found  ourselves  once  again  in  a clear  open  way,  wide  and 


268 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


high  enough  to  drive  a six-horse  stage-coach  comfortably.  This 
smooth  tunnel  we  follow  for  probably  loo  yards,  when  we  again 
descend  a rocky  stairway,  some  ten  feet  or  more,  and  stand  upon 
what  apparently  was  once  the  bed  of  a large  river,  with  a per- 
fectly solid  sandy  floor.  The  roof  and  side  walls  are  here  found 
to  be  covered  with  minute  stalactites  which,  reflecting  the  light 
of  our  candles,  lend  a weird  aspect  to  the  surroundings.  We 
now  proceed  onward  several  hundred  feet  through  this  perfectly 
symmetrical  tunnel  to  the  end,  or  what  appears  to  be  the  end.’ 

“About  two  miles  to  the  northwest  of  the  ice  cave  is  a slum- 
bering volcano,  out  of  which  came  part  of  the  immense  bodies 
of  lava  that  cover  this  plain  for  miles  around.  The  rim  of  the 
crater  is  almost  circular,  and  stands  up  about  200  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  plateau  below.  In  the  cooling  process,  the  heart  of 
the  crater  settled  down  about  100  feet  below  the  rim,  leaving  a 
perfect  representation  to  the  student  of  nature  of  an  immense 
extinct  volcano.  We  have  been  able,  during  our  short  sojourn 
in  this  wonderland,  to  clearly  trace  nearly  fifty  immense  extinct 
volcanoes,  which  appear,  from  the  apparent  age  of  the  lava  beds, 
to  have  been  flowing  about  the  same  time. 

“All  kinds  of  game  common  to  the  western  mountains  can  be 
found  in  the  region  surrounding  Soda  Springs.  Bear,  deer,  elk, 
mountain  lions,  mountain  sheep,  sage  hens,  and  ducks  are  espe- 
cially plentiful.  Trout  fishing  in  Soda  creek.  Eight  Mile  creek. 
Bear  river,  and  Blackfoot  river,  is  of  that  character  which  can  be 
appreciated  even  by  the  novice.  Cast  your  hook  in  almost  any 
of  these  waters,  and  prepare  for  a two  or  three  pound  trout  as 
an  almost  instant  result. 

“ The  altitude  of  Soda  Springs  is  5,738  feet.  The  warmth  of 
summer  is  tempered  by  the  coolness  of  the  nights.  Blankets  are 
not  uncomfortable  even  in  the  warmest  nights  of  August.  The 
atmosphere  is  dry,  like  all  mountainous  regions,  and  is  therefore 
very  favorable  to  consumptives  or  those  afflicted  with  pulmonary 
diseases.  This  was  once  the  favorite  resort  of  Brigham  Young, 
and  is  still  the  regular  summering  place  of  numerous  Salt  Lake 
City  merchants,  who  have  built  appropriate  residences. 

“ Salt  is  also  one  of  the  Idaho  minerals.  The  Salt  Springs 


THE  ONEIDA  SALT  PRODUCTION.  269 

which  have  been  utilized  since  1866,  are  in  Oneida  county,  near 
the  Wyoming  border,  about  fifty  miles  northeast  of  the  Soda 
Springs,  on  the  Old  Lander  emigrant  road  leading  from  South 
Pass  to  Oregon.  The  road  passes  directly  along  the  flat  below 
the  spring,  where,  before  being  concentrated  in  pipes,  the  water 
had  spread  out  and,  evaporating  in  the  sun,  formed  large  masses 
of  salt  crystals  which  attracted  the  attention  of  passers-by  and 
led  to  the  discovery  of  the  spring  flowing  from  the  hillside  above. 
It  is  clear  and  sparkling  as  the  purest  spring  water,  and  never 
would  be  suspected  of  containing  mineral.  The  valley  in  which 
it  is  situated  is  known  now  as  Salt  Spring  valley,  and  is  about  ten 
miles  long  by  an  average  of  one  mile  wide  ; through  it  flows  a 
rapid  stream  well  filled  with  mountain  trout. 

“ The  Salt  Springs  were  first  taken  up  by  B.  F.  White,  Esq.  (the 
present  owner),  and  partner,  in  June,  1866,  and  works  have  since 
been  in  constant  operation,  every  year  witnessing  an  increase  in 
the  demand,  until  almost  the  entire  stream  flowing  from  the 
spring  has  been  utilized.  The  salt  is  made  by  boiling  the  water 
in  large  galvanized  iron  pans,  into  which  it  is  led  by  wooden 
pipes  leading  direct  from  the  spring,  thus  insuring  perfect  clean- 
liness, and  a uniformly  white,  clean  and  beautiful  product.  The 
water  is  kept  constantly  running  into  the  boilers,  and  is  kept  at 
a boiling  heat  all  the  time.  The  salt  is  shoveled  out  once  in 
every  thirty  minutes,  and  after  draining  twenty-five  hours  is 
thence  thrown  into  the  drying-house,  there  to  remain  until 
sacked  and  prepared  for  shipping.  The  most  scrupulous  clean- 
liness is  observed  in  every  operation,  and  when  the  immense 
banks  of  salt  lie  piled  up  in  the  drying-house,  they  resemble  huge 
snow-banks  more  than  anything  one  could  imagine.  It  takes 
from  two  to  four  months  for  salt  made  in  this  manner  to  dry  and 
ripen,  and  for  this  reason  it  becomes  necessary  to  keep  on  hand 
a large  supply,  so  that  at  any  time  a thousand  tons  of  the  purest 
and  whitest  salt  in  the  world  may  be  seen  here  in  these  far  west 
‘ Oneida  salt  works.’ 

“ Following  is  an  analysis  of  the  Oneida  salt,  made  by  Dr. 
Piggot,  the  well-known  analytical  chemist,  of  Baltimore.  It  shows 
a higher  percentage  of  pure  salt  than  the  celebrated  Onondaga 


270 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


brand,  manufactured  at  Syracuse,  while  neither  ‘Liverpool,’ 
‘Turk’s  Island  ’ or  ‘Saginaw’  salt  approach  it  in  purity,  or  are  as 
white,  clear  or  soluble  in  liquids: 


Chloride  of  sodium  (pure  salt) 97-79 

Sulph.  soda  1.54 

Chloride  of  calcium .67 

Sulph.  magnesia Trace 


Total 100.00 


“In  1866  only  15,000  pounds  of  salt  were  here  manufactured; 
but  the  demand  in  Idaho,  Utah  and  Montana  has  so  steadily  in- 
creased that  the  product  has  averaged  about  600,000  pounds  per 
annum  up  to  1877.  In  1878  it  ran  up  to  1,500,000  pounds,  and 
in  1879  to  nearly  2,000,000  pounds,  much  of  the  production  of 
the  last  two  years  having  been  consumed  in  Montana  smelting 
works.  It  is  sacked  in  5,  10,  25,  50  and  100  pound  bags,  and  is 
laid  down  at  points  200  miles  distant  by  wagon  transportation  at 
from  three  to  four  cents  per  pound.” 

Soil  and  Vegetable  Productions. — We  have  already  stated  our 
conviction  that  the  amount  of  arable  land  in  Idaho  did  not  greatly 
exceed  one-fifth  of  its  surface,  even  including  those  lands  ca- 
pable of  successful  irrigation.  Of  course  in  a Territory  of  which 
not  one-seventh,  including  mining  lands,  has  been  surveyed, 
such  a conviction  must  rest  partly  on  general  principles.  Our 
reasons  are  these:  The  Rocky  Mountains,  which  form  the  east- 
ern boundary  of  the  State  present  only  their  western  face  to 
it;  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  other 
high  mountain  ranges  on  this  continent  having  a general  di- 
rection from  north  to  south,  the  western  face  or  slope  is  precip- 
itous, and  has  very  little  arable  land,  though  portions  of  the 
mountain  below  the  snow-line  may  be  covered  with  timber.  But 
it  is  precisely  these  precipitous  mountain  sides  which  are  oftenest 
the  places  of  deposit  of  the  precious  metals.  In  Idaho  we  have  not 
only  the  western  face  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  but  the  long  and 
bold  spur  of  that  range  known  as  the  Salmon  River  and  Sawtooth 
Mountains,  the  latter  name  being  given  as  characteristic  of  their 
precipitous  faces.  There  is  also  a rocky  wall  overlooking  the  vaL 


THE  BARKEN  LANDS  OF  IDAHO. 


2/1 

ley  of  the  Snake  river  for  a long  stretch  of  its  course,  and  the  deep, 
dark  canon  through  which  it  flows  for  seventy-five  miles  in  the  lava 
lands.  There  are  furthermore  the  alkaline  lands,  a desert  and 
dreary  waste,  the  lofty  mesas  and  plains,  not  irrigable,  and  unfit 
even  for  grazing  without  it,  and  the  hillsides  and  foothills  facing 
the  east,  which,  though  affording  good  pasture  grounds  in  many 
instances  for  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep,  are  not  adapted 
to  cultivation.  In  short,  it  is  only  the  river  valley  and  bottom 
land,  and  not  all  of  these,  which  can  properly  be  called  arable 
lands,  and  with  an  average  rainfall  of  only  twelve  inches,  more 
than  three-fourths  of  it  between  November  and  April,  even  these 
must  often,  perhaps  not  always,  be  irrigated. 

The  soil,  when  irrigated,  is  generally  fertile  ; perhaps  not  so 
rich  as  that  of  Montana,  or  California,  or  the  Willamette  valley, 
but  it  yields  for  a first  crop  from  twenty-five  to  forty  bushels  of 
wheat,  fifty  bushels  or  thereabouts  of  barley,  and  fifty-five  of  oats. 
Corn  does  not  do  well,  except  in  the  river  bottoms,  the  season 
being  too  short  for  it.  Fruits  are  said  to  be  raised  with  great 
success,  especially  in  Northern  Idaho. 

The  forest  trees  of  Idaho  are  mainly  those  of  the  Pacific  slope, 
but  rather  of  Oregon  and  Washington,  than  of  California.  The 
various  species  of  pine,  including  the  pinon  or  nut  pine,  the  P. 
ponderosa  or  yellow  pine,  and  several  other  species  of  fir,  spruce, 
tamarack  and  cypress,  the  red  cedar,  though  not  the  “Redwood,” 
the  white  cedar,  the  juniper,  and  some  of  the  hardwood  trees,  as 
the  oak  of  three  or  four  species,  chinquapin,  hickory,  etc.,  etc., 
are  the  principal  trees  of  its  forests.  At  full  age,  the  pines,  firs 
and  cedars  attain  a height  of  about  1 50  feet.  Like  the  Pacific 
States  generally,  it  has  very  little  sod,  though  the  bunch  grass  is 
found  on  most  of  the  grazing  lands,  and  is  so  nutritious  that  cat- 
tle fatten  upon  it  very  readily.  Wild  flowers  abound  in  the 
valleys,  and  many  of  them  are  of  remarkable  beauty.  Lands 
upon  which  are  found  in  luxuriant  growth  the  bunch  grass, 
larkspur  and  the  wild  sunflower  of  the  Pacific  coast,  are  well 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  cereals,  and  these  are  the  most  com- 
mon products  of  the  plateaux  of  Northern  Idaho.  Wild  fruits 
abound  in  Northern  and  Central  Idaho,  especially  the  wild 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


272 

berries  and  wild  cherries,  though  the  wild  cherry  of  the  Pacific 
coast  is  a shrub,  and  not  a tree.  Its  fruit  is,  however,  more 
edible  and  pleasant  than  that  of  the  East. 

Zoology. — The  wild  animals  of  the  Territory  are,  in  general, 
those  of  Oregon  and  California.  The  grizzly  bear  is  seldom 
seen,  but  has  been  found  in  the  Territory.  The  black  and  cin- 
namon bear  are  common  ; the  puma,  cougar,  panther  or  moun- 
tain lion  (the  beast  is  known  by  all  four  names)  is  troublesome, 
especially  in  the  grazing  lands  ; the  gray  wolf  and  the  western 
coyote,  all  the  fur-bearing  animals,  the  martin,  fisher,  lynx,  pos- 
sibly the  ocelot,  the  otter,  mink,  muskrat  and  beaver,  as  well  as 
the  smaller  rodents  ; the  marmot  or  gopher,  sewellel  and  other 
species  of  mole  are  abundant.  Moose  {Alces  America7izis)  are 
found  occasionally  in  Northern  Idaho.  Naturalists  insist  that 
the  moose  and  true  elk  are  identical ; but  the  animal  generally 
known  as  the  elk  or  Wapiti  {Cervus  Canadeztsis)  differs  materially 
from  the  moose,  and  is  the  largest  of  the  deer  family  in  America ; 
it  roams  over  the  whole  Territory  ; two  other  species  of  deer  are 
distinguished  by  the  hunters ; the  bighorn  or  Rocky  Mountain 
sheep  is  found  in  considerable  numbers  on  the  mountains  and  in 
the  lofty  valleys,  and  occasionally  the  Rocky  Mountain  goat  or 
goat  antelope  is  seen.  The  antelope  of  the  plains  is  rare,  if  seen 
at  all,  west  of  the  mountains,  and  the  buffalo  is  not  now,  we  believe, 
seen  in  this  Territory,  though  said  formerly  to  have  been  found 
here  in  vast  herds.  Of  birds,  there  are  considerable  numbers, 
the  7'aptores  or  birds  of  prey  predominating,  though  the  grouse, 
pheasant  and  ptarmigan  families  are  abundant.  Song-birds  are 
not  as  abundant  as  in  more  southern  climes.  There  are  a few 
reptiles  and  serpents.  The  rivers  and  lakes  abound  with  fish. 
Salmon  trout,  brook  and  lake  trout  and  many  other  species  of 
edible  fish,  among  which  the  Red  fish,  found  only  in  four  lakes  in 
the  world,  of  which  two  are  in  Idaho, 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


273 


CHAPTER  VII. 
TEE  imiAE  TERRITORY, 


The.  Indian  Territory  is  situated  between  the  parallels  of  33° 
35'  and  37°  north  latitude,  and  between  the  meridians  of  94°  20' 
and  103°  west  longitude  from  Greenwich.  The  greater  part  of 
the  Territory  is  between  94°  20'  and  100°  west;  but  a narrow 
strip  thirty-five  miles  in  width,  and  extending  from  the  looth  to 
the  103d  degree  of  longitude,  separates  Northwestern  Texas 
from  Kansas  and  Colorado,  and  that  strip  watered  by  the 
Cimarron  and  Canadian  rivers,  forms  a part  of  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory. Its  length  from  east  to  west  along  the  northern  border  is 
470  miles,  and  south  of  latitude  36°  30',  310  miles.  Its  breadth 
east  of  the  looth  meridian  averages  about  210  miles.  Its  area 
is  now  stated  as  69,304  square  miles,  or  44,154,240  acres.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Kansas  and  Colorado ; on  the  east  by 
Missouri  and  Arkansas ; on  the  south  by  Texas,  from  which  it  is 
separated  as  far  west  as  the  lOOth  meridian  by  the  Red  river; 
west  of  that  meridian  by  the  parallel  of  36°  30'.  Its  western 
boundaries  are  Texas  and  New  Mexico.  Not  quite  one-thir- 
teenth of  its  surface  is  in  forests ; the  remainder  is  prairie,  deep 
ravines,  or  wider  valleys,  and  pleasant  mountain  slopes. 

Besides  a considerable  portion  still  unassigned,  the  Territory 
contains  eighteen  or  twenty  Indian  reservations.  The  Chero- 
kees  have  two  tracts : one  of  5,960  square  miles  in  the  north- 
east, east  of  the  96th  meridian,  and  bordering  on  Kansas  and  Ar- 
kansas. They  also  own  a strip  containing  about  8,500  square 
miles,  about  fifty  miles  wide  along  the  Kansas  border  from  the 
Arkansas  river,  west  to  the  looth  meridian.  The  Choctaw  res- 
ervation, 10,450  square  miles,  is  in  the  southeast,  bordering  on 
Arkansas  and  Texas.  The  Chickasaw  reservation,  6,840  square 
miles,  joins  this  on  the  west,  and  is  separated  from  Texas  by 
the  Red  river.  The  Creek  reservation,  5,024  square  miles,  is 
in  the  eastern  central  part  of  the  territory,  between  the  Chero- 


ALLOTMENTS  OF  TEL^RITORY  TO  DIFFERENT  TRLBES. 


274 

kees  and  Choctaws.  The  Seminole  reservation,  312.5  square 
miles,  lies  southwest  of  the  Creeks,  and  north  of  this  that  of  the 
Sacs  and  Foxes,  756  square  miles.  A tract  of  900  square  miles, 
lying  west  of  the  Seminole  reservation,  is  set  apart  for  the 
citizen  Pottawatomies  and  the  Absentee  Shawnees.  West  of  the 
Cherokees’  second  reservation,  and  bounded  north  by  Kansas, 
and  southwest  by  the  Arkansas  river,  is  the  Osage  reservation 
of  2,345  square  miles ; and  northwest  of  this  is  the  little  reserva- 
tion of  the  Kaws,  156  square  miles  in  extent.  These  are  late 
comers,  though  not  the  latest,  having  been  removed  from 
Kansas  in  1873.  The  Kiowas,  Comanches  and  Apaches  occupy 
a tract  of  5,546  square  miles  in  the  southwest,  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  Chickasaw  reservation.  North  of  these  the  Arapahoes 
and  Cheyennes  have  a tract  of  6,205  square  miles.  Fragments 
of  ten  tribes,  viz.:  the  Quapaws,  the  Confederated  Peorias, 
Kaskaskias,  Weas,  Piankashaws  and  Miamies,  the  Ottawas, 
the  Shawnees,  the  Wyandots  and  the  Senecas,  severally,  have 
reservations,  aggregating  in  all  297  square  miles,  in  the  north- 
east corner  of  the  Territory,  east  of  the  Neosho  river.  There 
are  eight  affiliated  bands  of  Wichitas,  Keechies,  Wacoes, 
Tawacanies,  Caddoes,  lonies,  Delawares  and  Penetethka 
Comanches,  who  are  gathered  around  an  agency  on  the 
Washita  river,  west  of  the  Creek  country,  but  they  have  no 
reservation.  The  Modocs,  the  remnant  of  Captain  Jack’s  band, 
and  about  400  Kickapoos  and  Pottawatomies,  were  sent  to  the 
Indian  Territory  in  1873,  and  the  Modocs  were  placed  tem- 
porarily on  the  Shawnee  reservation,  and  the  latter  settled  on  a 
tract  on  the  Kansas  border  west  of  the  Arkansas  river.  The 
Poncas  and  some  bands  of  the  Sioux  were  sent  into  the  Terri- 
tory in  1876  and  1877;  some  of  the  Arizona  Indians  about 
the  same  time,  and  some  bands  of  Utes  still  later. 

In  1878  the  Indian  office  reported  the  whole  number  ofjn- 
dians  in  the  Indian  Territory  as  75,479.  The  increase  by  births, 
and  the  additional  bands  which  have  been  sent  in  since  that  time, 
may  have  increased  the  total  number  to  78,000.  These  are  for 
the  most  part  recognized  as  civilized  or  partly  civilized  Indians. 
The  greater  part  of  them  wear  citizen’s  dress,  and  a fair  proper- 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALOGY. 


275 

tion  have  farms  or  herds  of  cattle  or  sheep  and  can  read  or  write 
at  least  in  their  own  language.  This  is  especially  true  of  the 
five  leading  tribes,  the  Cherokees,  Choctaws,  Creeks,  Chicka- 
saws,  and  Seminoles. 

Surface,  Moimtains,  Rivers,  Lakes. — The  surface  of  the  Terri- 
tory, like  that  of  Kansas,  at  the  north  of  it,  has  a general  declina- 
tion toward  the  East.  In  the  southwest  the  Wichita  Mountains 
attain  to  a moderate  elevation,  and  in  the  east  there  is  a continu- 
ation of  the  Ozark  and  Washita  hills  from  Arkansas ; beyond 
these  the  country  spreads  out  into  rolling  prairie  lands  rising 
gradually  to  the  west,  and  in  the  north  there  are  table  lands 
rising  from  3,500  to  4,500  feet  above  the  sea.  The  Territory  is 
well  watered.  The  Red  river,  which  forms  its  southern  boun- 
dary, receives  numerous  affluents  great  and  small  on  its  northern 
bank : the  Arkansas,  which  is  the  principal  river  of  the  Territory, 
has  for  its  largest  tributaries  the  Canadian,  the  north  fork  of  the 
Canadian,  the  Cimarron  or  Red  fork,  and  the  Little  Arkansas, 
on  its  south  bank,  and  the  Neosho,  Verdigris,  and  Illinois  on  the 
north,  and  is  itself  a mighty  stream  where  it  enters  the  Territory 
from  Kansas.  Owing  to  the  falls  which  obstruct  it,  the  Arkansas 
is  only  navigable  in  the  Indian  Territory  as  far  as  Fort  Gibson, 
where  the  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas  Railway  crosses  it.  The 
Red  river  is  navigable  for  nearly  the  whole  distance  along  the 
southern  border  of  the  Territory.  None  of  the  tributaries  of 
the  Arkansas  are  navigable  for  any  great  distance,  though  sev- 
eral of  them  are  large  streams  and  afford  permanent  water  power. 
The  Territory  is  well  watered,  surpassing  Kansas  in  that  respect. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  generally  mild  and  salubrious,  but 
inclined  to  be  dry  in  the  northwest.  In  the  southwest  there  are 
tracts  of  marshy  lands  where  intermittent  and  remittent  fevers 
prevail.  The  mean  annual  temperature  in  the  southeast  is  60°, 
in  the  northwest  55°.  The  annual  rainfall,  which,  in  the  south- 
eastern extremity  of  the  Territory  is  fifty-two  inches,  decreases 
to  thirty-five  inches  in  the  central  region,  and  is  less  than  twenty 
inches  in  the  northwest  corner. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — The  geology  of  the  Territory  has 
not  been  very  thoroughly  explored.  It  seems  to  partake  more 
of  the  characteristics  of  Kansas  than  of  Arkansas,  and  some  of 


SOIL  AND  VEGETATION. 


276 

its  formations  extend  across  the  Red  river  into  Northern  Texas. 
Some  of  its  mountains  have  azoic  rocks  near  the  surface,  while 
in  others,  especially  those  of  the  central  part  of  the  Territory, 
the  cretaceous  period  seems  to  have  been  predominant.  There 
are  in  the  west  and  northwest  extensive  deposits  of  gypsum, 
and  in  the  Cherokee  country  are  found  coal,  iron,  good  brick  clay, 
marble  of  fine  quality,  and  a yellow  sandstone  suitable  for  build- 
ing purposes.  It  is  probable  that  there  is  copper,  and  perhaps 
salt  in  the  southwest,  as  the  beds  of  copper  ores  come  to  the  Red 
river  in  Wichita  and  Clay  counties,  Texas,*  and  there  are  salt 
springs  in  the  same  vicinity.  Salt  also  abounds  in  the  northwest 
of  the  Territory,  and  many  of  the  springs  and  streams  are  very 
salt.  There  has  been  no  search  for  the  precious  metals  in  the 
Territory,  and  their  existence  is  not  known  with  certainty. 

The  coal  beds  are  an  extension  of  the  coal  deposits  of  Mis- 
souri and  Arkansas.  At  McAllister,  in  the  Choctaw  country,  a 
mine  is  worked  by  a large  force  of  white  men,  who  pay  a royalty 
to  the  Choctaw  government;  and  near  Muscogee,  in  the  Creek 
Nation,  is  a fine  mine  of  rich  coal.  All  the  coal  mined  in  the 
Territory  is  bituminous,  and  of  the  best  quality. 

Soil  and  Vegetation. — The  valleys  of  the  Wichita  range  are 
fertile  and  have  good  timber,  water  and  grass,  and  generally  the 
region  south  of  the  Canadian  river  possesses  a fertile  soil  and  is 
well  adapted  alike  to  cultivation  and  grazing.  There  are  exten- 
sive forests  in  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  Territory,  but 
about  three-fifths  of  the  Cherokee  country  is  rocky,  and  only  fit 
for  grazing.  Between  the  97th  and  98th  meridians  there  is  a nar- 
row belt  of  timber  called  the  “ Cross  Timbers,”  extending  from 
the  Cimarron,  or  Red  fork  of  the  Arkansas,  to  and  beyond  the 
Texas  border.  The  region  west  of  this  and  north  of  the  Cana- 
dian river  is  reported  to  be  sterile,  without  trees  or  much  grass, 
with  only  a few  sickly  shrubs  and  cacti,  and  the  soil  covered  with 
an  alkaline  or  saline  deposit.  This  land  will  produce  nothing 
without  irrigation,  and  may  require  also  a plentiful  application 
of  gypsum,  but  with  these  measures  it  may  yield  abundant  crops. 
The  principal  forest  trees  are  the  cottonwood,  oak  of  several 


* Copper  has  been  discovered,  but  not  mined,  at  several  points  in  the  Territory. 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


277 


species,  sycamore,  elm,  hickory,  ash,  yellow  pine,  osage  orange  or 
bois  d'arc,  pecan  and  hawthorn.  Wild  grapes  of  excellent  flavor 
abound.  The  arable  lands  of  the  Territory  are  well  adapted  to 
cereal  and  root  crops,  and  the  yield  per  acre  of  wheat,  Indian 
corn  and  oats  is  large.  In  the  hilly  and  broken  country  the 
fruits  of  the  temperate  zone  do  well.  Apples,  peaches,  pears, 
plums,  cherries,  and  small  fruits  of  good  quality  are  largely 
raised. 

Railroads,  etc. — Aside  from  the  river  navigation,  there  is  one 
railway  which  crosses  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Territory  from 
north  to  south,  viz. : the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas  Railway, 
extending  from  Sedalla,  Missouri,  to  Denison,  Texas,  where  it 
joins  other  Texas  roads.  The  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Railway,  from 
Pacific;  Missouri,  also  enters  the  Territory  from  the  northeast, 
and  forms  a junction  with  the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas  at 
VInita,  in  the  extreme  northeast  of  the  Territory.  This  road,  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific,  had  projected  a route  crossing  the  Indian 
Territory  from  east  to  west  along  the  valleys  of  the  Cimarron 
and  Canadian  rivers,  but  in  the  strife  of  the  different  transconti- 
nental routes  and  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  the  right  of  way 
through  the  Territory,  we  believe  this  project  has  been  given  up. 

The  Character  of  the  Popidation. — Rev.  Timothy  Hill,  D.  D., 
long  a missionary  in  the  Indian  Territory,  and  thoroughly  con- 
versant with  the  tribes  which  occupy  it,  thus  describes  them  in  a 
communication  to  the  New  York  Evangelist  in  the  summer  of 
1880: 

“ The  present  population  Is  about  80,000.  I have  conversed 
with  a large  number  of  men,  native  and  long  resident  there,  and 
none  have  placed  it  less  than  the  number  given,  and  some  have 
placed  it  as  high  as  100,000.  There  can  be  but  little  doubt  of 
80,000.  Without  any  claim  to  absolute  accuracy,  I place  the  pop- 
ulation as  Indians  and  people  of  Indian  extraction  about  62,000 ; 
colored,  8,000;  and  whites,  10,000.  The  Indians  are  well  classi- 
fied into  civilized  and  uncivilized.  In  the  former  class  come  the 
Cherokees,  Creeks,  Seminoles,  Choctaws,  Chickasaws,  a remnant 
of  Delawares,  who  are  Cherokee  citizens ; a part  of  the  Shaw- 
nees,  Pottawatomies,  and  Senecas.  We  shall  gain  in  definite 


2^8  hill  on  the  INDIAN  TERRITORY. 

impression  if  we  consider  each  of  diese  tribes  and  classes  by 
themselves. 

“ Easily  foremost  are  the  Cherokees.  They  occupy  the  north- 
east portion  of  the  Territory  (except  a limited  portion  in  the  ex- 
treme northeast  corner),  with  only  one  district  or  county  south 
of  the  Arkansas  river.  The  Cherokee  government  has  a popu- 
lation of  about  18,000,  but  only  some  12,000  of  them  are  Indians, 
the  remainder  are  colored  and  white.  These  people  all  live  in 
houses,  some  of  them  large  and  well  furnished.  They  live  com- 
fortably, and  are  slowly  gaining  property  and  increasing  the  com- 
forts of  life  around  them.  The  war  stripped  them  bare,  and  they 
are  now  only  regaining  some  of  their  lost  property.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  Cherokees  is  extremely  difficult  to  acquire  ; but  a 
large  number  of  them  speak  English,  and  no  difficulty  would  be 
found  in  travelling  nearly  all  over  their  country  without  an  inter- 
preter. But  to  reach  the  full  bloods,  an  interpreter  will  fre- 
quently be  needed. 

“ 2.  The  Creeks  occupy  a region  directly  west  of  the  Chero- 
kces.  They  are  a lower  type  of  men,  less  attractive  in  personal 
appearance,  less  keen  in  intellect,  than  the  Cherokees  ; but  they 
are  more  industrious  than  the  Cherokees,  and  are  probably 
making  more  rapid  advances  in  civilization.  The  Creeks  are 
greatly  intermingled  with  the  blacks.  The  Creek  government 
has  probably  a population  of  about  13,000,  of  whom  some  2,000 
are  blacks. 

“ 3.  Next  to  the  Creeks  are  the  Seminoles,  a separate  tribe 
of  the  same  general  origin  as  the  Creeks,  and  speaking  nearly 
the  same  language,  but  with  a separate  government.  They  are 
much  mingled  with  the  blacks,  but  are  gaining  in  civilization 
rapidly.  The  long  contest  which  they  kept  up  with  the  United 
States  in  Florida,  sufficiently  attests  their  courage  and  general 
skill. 

“4.  The  Choctaws  occupy  the  southeast  portion  of  the  Terri- 
tory. I have  been  among  them  but  little,  and  from  personal 
observation  cannot  say  much.  They  are  the  strongest  in  numbers 
of  the  civilized  tribes,  numbering  about  16,000  Indians.  They 
refused  to  give  the  blacks — their  former  slaves — citizenship,  as 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


279 


the  Cherokees,  Creeks  and  Seminoles  did.  They  are  less  ad- 
vanced in  the  arts  of  civilized  life  than  the  Cherokees,  but  are 
gaining  steadily. 

“ 5.  The  Chickasaws  are  a small  tribe  of  the  same  general 
origin  as  the  Choctaws,  and  speaking  nearly  the  same  language. 
They  are,  in  some  things,  in  advance  of  all  the  other  civilized 
tribes,  as  their  land  is  sectionized,  although  not  yet  allotted  in 
severalty,  as  they  cannot  do  that  without  consent  of  the  Choc- 
taws. There  are  many  white  men  living  among  them,  probably 
a larger  number  than  any  other  tribe,  many  of  them  intermarried 
with  the  half-breeds,  and  thus  citizens,  and  others  living  among 
them  as  renters  of  land,  mechanics,  or  hired  laborers,  of  the 
Indians  or  Indianized  whites. 

“ 6.  Besides  the  five  civilized  tribes  who  have  a separate  gov- 
ernment, there  are  others  quite  as  much  advanced  as  any  Indians. 
There  is  a remnant  of  the  Delawares,  who  are  well  advanced  in 
all  the  arts  of  life.  They  are  more  quiet  and  orderly  than  any 
other  Indians  cultivating  their  laru:l. 

“Added  to  the  Delawares  are  the  Ottawas,  not  long  since  resi- 
dent in  Kansas — a quiet  people,  supporting  themselves  by  culti- 
vating their  land.  The  Pottawatomies,  a small  tribe  recently 
from  Kansas,  are  partially  civilized,  some  of  them  United  States 
citizens. 

“All  these  civilized  tribes  live  in  houses,  dress  like  other  peo- 
ple, and  many  of  them  speak  the  English  language  well.  I never 
saw  a blanket-Indian  among  any  of  these  people ; and  perhaps 
the  only  peculiarity  that  would  be  noticed  in  the  dress,  is  a 
fondness  for  bright  colors  with  the  women,  and  a disposition  to 
place  a feather  or  plume  of  some  sort  in  the  hat  of  the  men. 
But  a trader,  who  has  lived  among  them  many  years,  recently 
said  to  me,  ‘ The  change  in  the  character  of  goods  now  sold  is 
very  marked.  We  sell  fewer  beads  and  trinkets  and  cheap 
jewelry,  and  we  sell  in  the  place  of  these  a much  better  quality 
of  cloth,  and  much  more  substantial  goods  for  woman’s  wear. 
The  advance  in  these' things  has  been  quite  marked.’ 

“The  uncivilized  Indians  are  the  remnants  of  a large  number 
of  tribes  gathered  from  widely  different  regions,  and  greatly 


28o 


CIVILIZED  AND  UNCIVILIZED  INDIANS. 


differing  in  character.  I suppose  them  to  amount  to  about 
1 2,000.  These  remnants  differ  greatly  in  personal  appearance 
and  prospective  importance.  The  Osages,  Nez  Perces  and 
Modocs  are  fine-looking  people,  fair  size,  well  formed,  and  inter- 
esting in  personal  appearance — at  least  some  of  them.  The 
Poncas  are  less  interesting  in  appearance,  and  the  Kaws  and 
Quapaws  are  vile  in  character,  and  far  gone  in  physical  ruin,  in 
consequence  of  the  diseases  of  crime  and  vice.  With  most  of 
these  bands  I have  no  intimate  acquaintance,  but  I have  seen  the 
Modocs,  Poncas  and  Nez  Perces,  and  have  been  in  the  Quaker 
school  of  the  Quapaws. 

“ In  looking  at  the  present  condition  of  the  Territory,  the 
negro  has  a prominent  place.  The  civilized  Indians  were  all 
slaveholders  before  the  war,  and  some  of  them  held  large  num- 
bers. In  the  reconstruction  that  followed  the  war,  the  Chero- 
kees.  Creeks  and  Seminoles  admitted  their  former  slaves  to  citi- 
zenship ; but  the  Choctaws  did  not,  and  I think  also  the  Chicka- 
saws.  These  negroes  are  more  industrious,  as  a class,  than  the 
Indians,  and  more  thievish. 

“ The  prejudices  of  the  Cherokees  against  the  blacks  are  as 
intense  as  any  white  man’s  can  well  be,  but  the  Creeks  are  much 
less  prejudiced  than  the  whites.  I never  saw  a half-breed  Chero- 
kee and  negro,  but  some  of  the  most  prominent  families  of  the 
Creek  and  Seminole  nations  are  of  this  mixed  race,  and  it  is  not 
a very  rare  thing  to  find  persons  whose  ancestry  will  be  found 
in  the  three.  A former  politician  of  the  Creek  tribe,  a man  of 
honor  and  influence,  possessed  the  general  features  and  personal 
appearance  of  an  Indian  ; but  his  African  relationship  was  appa- 
rent in  a woolly  head,  which  he  shaved,  and  covered  with  a wig 
of  Indian  hair. 

“The  white  population  is  an  element  of  great  importance,  and 
rapidly  gaining  in  numbers  and  influence.  This  class  consists  of 
missionaries  and  teachers,  and  their  families,  aggregating  quite  a 
number;  railroad  employes,  licensed  traders,  mechanics,  and  a 
large  number  who  have  intermarried  in  the  Indian  tribes.  There 
is  a large  force  of  coal-miners  at  McAlister.  The  government 
officials  are  not  numerous,  but  they  are  in  positions  where  their 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


28l 


influence  is  strong,  and  in  some  instances  extremely  deleterious. 
The  licensed  traders  are  a numerous  and  influential  body.  The 
entire  trade  of  all  the  Territory  is  in  the  hands  of  white  men  or 
half  breeds.  I do  not  think  a full-blood  can  be  found  behind  a 
counter  in  all  the  Territory.  These  men  remain  long  in  the 
Territory,  have  their  families  there,  and  many  of  them  intermarry 
with  the  educated  half-breeds,  and  thus  become  citizens.  From 
the  contact  I have  had  with  this  class  of  white  men,  I should 
place  them  higher  in  morals  and  influence  for  good  than  the 
average  government  officials.  Another  class  of  white  men  are 
scattered  all  over  the  Territory — those  intermarried  with  the 
Indians.  Many  of  them  are  respectable,  honest  and  good  men  ; 
but  many  others  of  them  are  abandoned  men,  outcasts  from 
society.  Wicked,  corrupt  and  criminal,  they  become  the  teachers 
of  crime  and  villainy,  and  the  source  of  unmitigated  evil  to  the 
Indians. 

“A  most  important  element  in  the  estimate  of  this  country,  is 
the  mixed  race,  commonly  known  as  half-breeds.  All  persons 
who  lay  claim  to  any  consanguinity  with  the  Indians,  are  popu- 
larly designated  half-breeds.  This  class  is  rapidly  increasing, 
both  by  the  frequent  intermarriage  of  new-coming  white  men, 
and  the  raising  of  larger  families  by  the  native  half-breeds  than 
are  usually  seen  among  the  full-bloods.  It  is  said  that  in  a given 
number  of  half-breed  families,  and  an  equal  number  of  full- 
bloods,  the  children  will  be  more  numerous  in  the  half-breed 
families.  The  number  of  births  in  the  two  classes  of  families 
would  probably  not  be  materially  different,  but  a larger  propor- 
tion of  full-bloods  will  die  in  infancy  and  childhood.  The  full- 
blood  father  will  take  but  little  care  of  his  babe,  especially  if  it  is 
sick  ; while  the  white  or  half-breed  father  will  have  more  knowl- 
edge, and  take  better  care  of  his  child,  so  that  the  death-rate 
will  be  less.  The  half-breeds  occupy  the  great  majority  of  all 
the  offices  in  the  native  governments ; they  are  the  law-makers 
and  executive  officers  and  teachers  of  the  people.  Some  of  them 
are  well-educated  gentlemen,  and  occasionally  some  of  the  young 
ladies  possess  a fair  share  of  personal  beauty.” 

The  Indian  Title  to  this  Territory. — At  the  first  settlement  of 


282 


INDIAN  TITLE  lO  TERRITORY. 


this  country  by  whites,  they  found  the  whole  continent  peopled, 
sparsely  it  is  true,  by  tribes  of  Indians.  They  were  of  diverse 
origin,  and  were  not  themselves  in  all  probability  the  original 
inhabitants  of  the  land.  Every  year  brings  us  new  evidence  that 
one  or  two,  possibly  three,  races  had  preceded  them  in  the  occu- 
pation of  this  vast  continent.  Yet  at  that  time  they  had  the 
right  of  possession,  and  had  held,  at  least  by  that  title,  much  of 
it  for  some  hundreds  of  years.  The  whites,  coming  in  by  hun- 
dreds of  thousands,  pushed  the  Indian  tribes  westward  step  by 
step,  and  gained  possession  of  their  lands — sometimes  by  con- 
quest, oftener  by  treaty,  and,  perhaps,  oftener  still  by  purchase. 

As  a result  of  these  various  methods  there  were,  in  1825,  two 
centuries  after  the  advent  of  the  whites  in  what  is  now  the  United 
States,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  only  some  small  fragments  of 
tribes  in  New  England,  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  some 
larger  but  not  hostile  bands  in  Michigan  and  the  Northwest 
Territory  generally,  a considerable  body  of  Indians  in  Wisconsin 
Territory,  and  the  partially  civilized  but  resolute  tribes  of  Chero- 
kees.  Choctaws,  Chickasaws,  Creeks  and  Seminoles  in  Northern 
Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi  and  Elorida.  These  tribes  had 
once  or  twice  been  at  war  with  our  people,  and  though  they  had 
been  defeated  after  a long  and  vigorous  struggle,  their  defeat 
was  not  an  inglorious  one.  The  first  four  tribes  were  no  longer 
nomadic ; they  occupied  their  own  farms  and  dwelling-houses, 
had  their  own  churches  and  schools,  and  were  in  many  respects 
as  fully  civilized  as  most  of  the  whites  around  them.  But  the 
white  people  of  these  States  had  looked  with  envious  and  greedy 
eyes  upon  their  lands,  and  were  determined  to  drive  them  out 
and  take  possession.  Some  of  the  streams  running  through 
these  lands  were  discovered  to  carry  gold  in  moderate  quanti- 
ties ; the  land  in  these  mountain  farms  was  rich,  and  the  careful 
culture  of  the  Indians  put  to  shame  the  slovenly  farming  of  the 
whites ; though  there  were  millions  of  acres  of  government 
lands  in  these  States  to  be  had  at  nominal  prices,  yet  they 
seemed  poor  by  comparison  with  these  Indian  farms,  and  it  was 
these  that  they  wanted  and  must  have.  Added  to  this  was  the 
argument  so  decisive  with  a class  of  Southern  people:  “The 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


283 

owners  of  these  lands  were  nothing  but  Indians,  anyhow  ; and 
therefore  had  no  rights  which  a white  man  was  bound  to  respect.” 
The  claim  of  the  whites  to  these  lands,  it  should  be  said  in  justice 
to  the  State  of  Georgia,  had  been  anticipated  as  early  as  1802  ; 
for  in  that  year  the  United  States  government  entered  into  a 
compact  with  that  State,  covenanting  for  certain  considerations, 
that  as  soon  as  it  could  be  done  peaceably  and  on  reasonable 
terms,  the  title  of  the  Cherokee  Indians  to  land  within  the  limits 
of  Georgia  should  be  extinguished.  It  was  not  until  the  adminis- 
tration of  President  Monroe  (1817-1825),  that  the  State  of 
Georgia  became  clamorous  for  the  fulfilment  of  this  covenant, 
and  very  soon  thereafter  the  other  States,  Alabama,  Mississippi 
and  Tennessee,  though  they  had  no  such  compact  with  the 
United  States,  added  their  clamor  to  hers,  demanding,  under 
threats  of  forcible  ouster,  the  prompt  removal  of  these  tribes 
from  their  limits.  In  consequence  of  their  persistence  President 
Monroe  sent  a message  to  Congress,  we  think  in  1824,  in  which 
he  submitted  a proposition  for  the  removal  of  all  the  Indian 
tribes  from  the  lands  then  occupied  by  them  within  the  several 
States,  and  organized  Territories  east  of  the  Mississippi,  to  the 
country  west  of  that  river,  i.  e.,  to  Louisiana  Territory.  At  that 
time  neither  Texas  nor  any  part  of  the  region  west  of  th-e 
summits  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  range,  below  latitude  42°  north 
belonged  to  us.  In  that  message  President  Monroe  said,  that 
“ experience  had  demonstrated  that  in  the  present  state  of  these 
Indian  tribes  it  is  impossible  to  incorporate  them,  in  such  masses, 
in  any  form  whatever,  into  our  system.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
with  equal  certainty,  that  without  a timely  anticipation  of,  and 
provision  against  the  dangers  to  which  they  are  exposed,  under 
causes  which  it  will  be  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  control,  their 
degradation  and  extermination  will  be  inevitable.  The  great 
object  to  be  accomplished  is  the  removal  of  these  tribes  to  the 
country  designated,  on  conditions  which  shall  be  satisfactory  to 
themselves  and  honorable  to  the  United  States.  This  can  be 
done  by  conveying  to  each  tribe  a good  title  to  an  adequate 
portion  of  land  to  which  it  may  consent  to  remove,  and  providing 
for  it  there  a system  of  internal  government  which  shall  protect 


284  DELAY  IN  TRANSFERRING  THE  INDIANS. 

its  property  from  invasion,  and  by  regular  progress  of  improve- 
ment and  civilization  prevent  that  degeneracy,  which  has  gener- 
ally marked  the  transition  from  one  to  the  other  state/’  Presi- 
dent Monroe  in  this  message  overlooked  two  things,  viz.,  that 
the  lands  to  which  he  proposed  to  move  these  tribes  were  already 
held  by  other  tribes  whose  title  to  them  was  better  than  ours ; 
and  that  in  our  onward  progress  as  a nation  the  time  might  come, 
as  it  has  within  little  more  than  half  a century,  when  the  new 
lands  to  which  he^proposed  to  remove  them  would  be  demanded 
by  the  whites,  and  efforts  made  to  drive  them  to  some  other 
region.  Congress  was  not  ready  to  act,  and  the  matter  went 
over  to  the  administration  of  President  John  Quincy  Adams.  In 
1826  the  Secretary  of  War  made  a full  and  exhaustive  report,  in 
which  he  suggested  many  difficulties  in  carrying  out  such  a pro- 
ject as  President  Monroe  had  advocated,  and  expressed  his  fears, 
“ that  should  the  removal  be  made,  it  would  not  be  effective,  since 
it  was  probable  the  same  propensity  which  had  conducted  the 
white  population  to  the  remote  regions  which  the  Indians  now 
occwpy,  will  continue  to  propel  the  tide  of  immigration,  till  it  is 
arrested  only  by  the  distant  shores  of  the  Pacific.” 

Notwithstanding  these  apprehensions,  the  Secretary  of  War 
felt  it  necessary  to  submit  a plan  and  prepare  a bill  for  the  con- 
sideration of  Congress,  providing  for  this  removal.  Among  the 
provisions  of  this  bill  were : that  the  country  to  the  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  to  which  the  tribes  should  be  removed,  should  be  set 
apart  for  the  exclusive  abode  of  the  Indians ; that  they  should 
be  removed  as  individuals  or  families,  and  not  as  tribes ; and  if 
circumstances  should  justify  it,  the  tribal  relation  should  eventu- 
ally be  dissolved,  and  the  Indians  amalgamated  in  one  common 
nation,  with  a distribution,  of  the  property  among  the  individuals. 

The  great  difficulty,  that  the  Indian  from  past  experience  could 
not  be  induced  to  trust  our  promises,  must  in  some  way  be  ob- 
viated. Notwithstanding  the  urgency  of  the  Southern  people 
and  the  excited  and  anxious  condition  of  the  Indian  tribes,  no  ac- 
tion was  taken  until  1830,  the  second  year  of  General  Jackson’s 
administration,  when  Congress  passed  a law  authorizing  the 
President  to  cause  the  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi,  to  which 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


285 


the  original  title  had  been  extinguished,  and  which  was  not 
included  within  the  limits  of  any  State  or  organized  Territory,  to 
be  divided  into  a suitable  number  of  districts  for  the  reception 
of  such  tribes  or  nations  of  Indians  as  might  choose  to  exchange 
the  lands  on  which  they  then  resided,  and  to  remove  West. 
The  law  authorized  the  President  to  solemnly  assure  the  Indian 
tribes  with  whom  the  exchange  was  made,  that  the  United  States 
woidd  forever  secure  and  guarantee  to  them  and  their  hews  or  suc- 
cessors, the  coimtry  so  exchaiiged  with  them. 

The  President,  in  pursuance  of  this  law,  offered  the  most  sol- 
emn guaranties,  on  the  faith  of  the  nation,  to  the  tribes  that  might 
be  willing  to  make  the  exchange,  and  offered  them  transportation 
and  certain  annuities  as  a further  inducement.  Under  this  offer 
the  larger  part  of  the  Cherokees,  Creeks,  Choctaws,  Chickasaws, 
and  subsequently  the  Seminoles,  Delawares,  Shawnees,  Miamis, 
Kickapoos,  Pottawatomles,  Chippewas  of  Roche  de  Boeuf,  Sacs 
and  Foxes,  Wees,  Plankashaws,  Kaskasklas,  Peorias,  and  other 
tribes,  made  the  exchange,  and  were  told  that  these  lands  should 
be  their  permanent  ho7nes  forevej^.  Except  the  tracts  which  were 
granted  to  the  Cherokees,  Creeks,  Choctaws,  Chickasaws,  and 
Seminoles,  the  remainder  of  the  transplanted  tribes  were  allotted 
lands  within  the  boundaries  of  the  present  State  of 'Kansas. 
Since  the  organization  of  that  State,  all  these  emigrant  tribes 
have,  notwithstanding  these  solemn  guaranties  and  pledges, 
been  removed  to  the  Indian  Territory,  and  their  permanent 
homes  taken  from  them. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

IOWA. 

Iowa,  the  name  of  one  of  the  easternmost  of  the  central  belt 
of  States  and  Territories  composing  “Our  Western  Empire,” 
lying  between  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers.  The  name, 
which  was  that  of  a river  within  its  bounds,  and  also  of  the 
Indian  tribe  which  dwelt  on  the  banks  of  that  river,  is  said  to 
mean,  in  the  Indian  tongue,  “The  Beautiful  Land.”  The  Indians 
who  gave  it  and  themselves  this  name  were  not  the  original  In- 
habitants of  this  region,  but  migrated  hither  from  the  country  of 


286 


THE  lOlVA  INDIANS  OR  PAD-HOO-CHEES. 


the  great  lakes  (perhaps  Michigan)  where  they  had  borne  the 
name  of  the  Pau-hoo-chees,  about  1690.  They  increased  in 
numbers  and  power  here  till  they  became  the  most  formidable  of 
the  Indian  tribes  of  the  Northwest  except  the  Sioux,  with  whom 
they  were  constantly  at  war.  That  portion  of  the  State  lying  on 
the  Mississippi  is  supposed  to  have  been  visited  by  P'ather  Hen- 
'nepin  in  1680,  and  it  was  probably  in  consequence  of  his  explo- 
rations that  the  French  government  soon  after  took  formal  pos- 
session of  it  and  erected  two  or  three  trading-posts  along  the 
river.  Their  occupation  of  the  Territory  was,  however,  of  so  tri- 
fling a character  as  not  to  excite  the  displeasure  of  the  Iowa 
chief,  Mau-hau-gaw,  or  his  successors,  Mahaska  I.  and  II. 
Their  power  remained  undiminished,  though  the  French  title  to 
this  as  a part  of  the  province  of  Louisiana  had  passed  to  Spain 
in  1763,  returned  to  France  in  1800,  and  been  purchased  as 
Louisiana  Territory  by  the  United  States  in  1803.  In  this  long 
interval,  two  or  three  French  families  had  settled  in  the  Terri- 
tory. Notable  among  these  was  Julian  Dubuque,  who,  in  1788, 
settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  and  commenced  grading 
and  mining  lead  there.  Eleven  years  later  another  Frenchman, 
Louis  Honori,  established  himself  as  a trader  at  the  head  of  the 
“ rapids  of  the  river  Des  Moines.”  But  the  power  of  the  lowas 
was  beginning  to  wane.  They  had  fought  off  their  old  enemies, 
the  Sioux,  and  held  possession  of  most  of  the  Territory,  but  a new 
enemy  now  came  upon  them.  The  Sacs  and  Foxes,  Illinois 
tribes,  finding  civilization  pressing  hard  upon  them,  crossed  the 
river  about  1824,  and  began  to  make  encroachments  upon  the 
hunting-grounds  of  the  lowas.  Conflicts  followed,  and  finally, 
about  1828,  a fierce  battle  was  fought  between  the  invaders  and 
the  invaded  near  the  present  village  of  lowaville,  in  Davis 
county,  in  which,  after  a long  and  terrible  struggle,  the  lowas 
were  vanquished  and  the  Sacs  and  Foxes  occupied  their  hunting- 
grounds  along  the  Mississippi.  The  lowas  moved  sullenly 
westward,  and  finally  crossed  the  Missouri.  When  the  whites 
began  to  settle  west  of  the  Mississippi,  in  what  was  then  the 
Territory  of  Missouri,  in  1831  and  1832,  the  Sacs  and  Foxes 
were  the  occupants  of  all  the  eastern  and  southern  portions  of 


SHEEP-SHEARING 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


287 

the  Territory,  while  the  warlike  Sioux  held  undisputed  posses- 
sion of  the  northern  portion,  about  the  headwaters  of  the  Des 
Moines  and  the  lakes.  At  this  time  the  lowas,  once  so  powerful 
and  warlike  a tribe,  had  been  reduced,  in  their  new  home  beyond 
the  Missouri,  by  wars,  whiskey  and  small-pox  to  about  1,300 
souls. 

After  the  close  of  the  “ Black  Hawk  War,”  in  1833,  the  power 
of  the  Sac  chief.  Black  Hawk,  waned,  and  his  rival,  Keokuk,  who 
had  favored  peace  with  the  whites,  was  recognized  as  the  chief 
of  the  Sacs  and  Foxes.  Black  Hawk  died  in  October,  1838,  on 
the  Des  Moines  river. 

Let  us  now  recapitulate  its  political  or  civil  history,  aside  from 
any  claim  of  Indian  proprietorship,  which  in  this  case,  as  we  have 
seen,  was  merely  the  right  of  the  strongest. 

1.  It  was  first  claimed  by  France  in  1682  or  1683,  by  virtue  of 
Hennepin’s  discovery. 

2.  In  1 763,  as  a part  of  the  province  of  Louisiana,  it  was  ceded 
to  Spain. 

3.  October  i,  1800,  it  was  retroceded  with  the  same  bounda- 
ries by  Spain  to  France. 

4.  April  30,  1803,  France  ceded  the  province  of  Louisiana  to 
the  United  States. 

5.  October  31,  1803,  a temporary  government  was  authorized 
by  Congress  for  the  newly  acquired  Territory. 

6.  October  i,  1804,  it  was  included  in  the  “District  of  Louisi- 
ana,” and  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  territorial  gov- 
ernment of  Indiana. 

7.  July  4,  1805,  it  was  included  as  a part  of  the  “Territory  of 
Louisiana,”  then  organized  with  a separate  territorial  govern- 
ment. 

8.  June  4,  1812,  it  was  embraced  in  what  was  then  made  the 
“Territory  of  Missouri.” 

9.  June  28,  1834,  it  became  part  of  the  “Territory  of  Michi- 
gan.” 

10.  July  3,  1836,  it  was  included  as  a part  of  the  newly  organ- 
ized “ Territory  of  Wisconsin.” 

11.  June  12,  1838,  it  was  included  in,  and  constituted  a part 
of  the  newly  organized  “Territory  of  Iowa.” 


288 


AREA  AND  EXTENT  OE  IOWA. 


12.  December  28,  1846,  it  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a 
State. 

Area  and  Extent. — Iowa  is  about  300  miles  in  length,  east  and 
west,,  and  a little  over  200  miles  in  breadth,  north  and  south ; 
having  nearly  the  figure  of  a rectangular  parallelogram.  Its 
northern  boundary  is  the  parallel  of  43°  30',  separating  it  from 
the  State  of  Minnesota.  Its  southern  limit  is  nearly  on  the  line 
of  40°  31'  from  the  point  where  this  parallel  crosses  the  Des 
Moines  river,  westward.  From  this  point  to  the  southeast  cor- 
ner of  the  State,  a distance  of  about  thirty  miles,  the  Des  Moines 
river  forms  the  boundary  line  between  Iowa  and  Missouri.  The 
two  great  rivers  of  the  North  American  continent  form  the  east 
and  west  boundaries,  except  that  portion  of  the  western  boun- 
dary adjoining  the  Territory  of  Dakota.  The  Big  Sioux  river 
from  its  mouth,  two  miles  above  Sioux  City,  forms  the  western 
boundary  up  to  the  point  where  it  intersects  the  parallel  of  43° 
30'.  These  limits  embrace  an  area  of  55,045  square  miles  ; or, 
35,228,800  acres.  When  it  is  understood  that  all  this  vast  ex- 
tent of  surface,  except  that  which  is  occupied  by  the' rivers,  lakes 
and  peat-beds  of  the  northern  counties,  is  susceptible  of  the 
highest  cultivation,  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  immense 
agricultural  resources  of  the  State.  Iowa  is  nearly  as  large  as 
England,  and  twice  as  large  as  Scotland ; but  when  we  consider 
the  relative  area  of  surface  which  may  be  made  to  yield  to  the 
wants  of  man,  those  countries  of  the  Old  World  will  bear  no 
comparison  with  Iowa. 

Surface. — The  surface  of  the  State  is  remarkably  uniform, 
rising  to  nearly  the  same  general  altitude.  There  are  no  moun- 
tains, and  yet  but  little  of  the  surface  is  level  or  flat.  The  whole 
State  presents  a succession  of  gentle  elevations  and  depressions, 
with  some  bold  and  picturesque  bluffs  along  the  principal  streams. 
The  western  portion  of  the  State  is  generally  more  elevated  than 
the  eastern,  the  northwestern  part  being  the  highest.  Nature 
could  not  have  provided  a more  perfect  system  of  drainage,  and 
at  the  same  time  leave  the  country  so  completely  adapted  to  all 
the  purposes  of  agriculture.  Looking  at  the  map  of  Iowa,  we 
see  two  systems  of  streams  or  rivers  running  nearly  at  right 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  289 

angles  with  each  other.  The  streams  which  discharge  their 
waters  into  the  Mississippi  flow  from  the  northwest  to  the  south- 
east, while  those  of  the  other  system  flow  toward  the  southwest, 
and  empty  into  the  Missouri.  The  former  drain  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  State,  and  the  latter  the  remaining  one-fourth. 
The  water-shed  dividing  the  two  systems  of  streams  represents 
the  highest  portion  of  the  State,  and  gradually  descends  as  you 
follow  its  course  from  northwest  to  southeast.  Low-water  mark 
in  the  Missouri  river  at  Council  Bluffs  is  about  425  feet  above 
low-water  mark  in  the  Mississippi  at  Davenport.  At  the  cross- 
ing of  the  summit,  or  water-shed,  245  miles  west  of  Davenport, 
the  elevation  is  about  960  feet  above  the  Mississippi.  The  Des 
Moines  river  at  the  city  of  Des  Moines  has  an  elevation  of  227 
feet  above  the  Mississippi  at  Davenport,  and  is  198  feet  lower 
than  the  Missouri  at  Council  Bluffs.  The  elevation  of  the  east- 
ern border  of  the  State  at  McGregor  is  about  624  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  while  the  highest  elevation  in  the  northwest 
portion  of  the  State  is  about  1,400  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  In  addition  to  the  grand  water-shed  mentioned  above,  as 
dividing  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri,  there  are 
between  the  principal  streams,  elevations  commonly  called  “ di- 
vides,” which  are  drained  by  numerous  streams  of  a smaller  size 
tributary  to  the  rivers.  The  valleys  along  the  streams  have  a 
deep,  rich  soil,  but  are  scarcely  more  fertile  than  many  portions 
of  these  undulating  prairie  “ divides.” 

Rivers. — As  stated  above,  the  rivers  of  Iowa  are  divided  into 
two  systems  or  classes — those  flowing  into  the  Mississippi,  and 
those  flowing  into  the  Missouri.  The  Mississippi,  the  largest 
river  on  the  continent,  and  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world, 
washes  the  entire  eastern  border  of  the  State,  and  is  most  of 
the  year  navigable  for  a large  class  of  steamers.  The  only 
serious  obstructions  to  steamers  of  the  largest  size  are  what  are 
known  as  the  Lower  Rapids,  just  above  the  mouth  of  the  Des 
Moines.  The  government  of  the  United  States  has  constructed 
a canal,  or  channel,  around  these  rapids  on  the  Iowa  side  of  the 
river — a work  which  will  prove  of  immense  advantage  to  the  com- 
merce of  Iowa  for  all  time  to  come.  The  principal  rivers  which 


290 


RIVERS  OF  IOWA. 


flow  through  the  interior  of  the  State,  east  of  the  water-shed,  are 
the  Des  Moines,  Skunk,  Iowa,  Wapsipinicon,  Maquoketa,  Turkey 
and  Upper  Iowa.  One  of  the  largest  rivers  of  the  State  is  the 
Red  Cedar,  which  rises  in  Minnesota,  and  flowing  in  a south- 
easterly direction,  joins  its  waters  with  the  Iowa  river  in  Louisa 
county,  only  about  thirty  miles  from  its  mouth,  that  portion 
below  the  junction  retaining  the  name  of  Iowa  river,  although  it 
is  really  the  smaller  stream. 

The  Des  Moines  is  the  largest  interior  river  of  the  State,  and 
rises  in  a group  or  chain  of  lakes  in  Minnesota,  not  far  from  the 
Iowa  border.  It  really  has  its  sources  in  two  principal  branches, 
called  East  and  West  Des  Moines,  which,  after  flowing  about 
seventy  miles  through  the  northern  portion  of  the  State,  converge 
to  their  junction  in  the  southern  part  of  Humboldt  county.  The 
Des  Moines  receives  a number  of  large  tributaries,  among  which 
are  Raccoon  and  three  rivers  (North,  South  and  Middle)  on  the 
west,  and  Boone  river  on  the  east.  Raccoon  (or  ’Coon)  rises  in 
the  vicinity  of  Storm  lake,  in  Buena  Vista  county,  and  after  re- 
ceiving several  tributaries,  discharges  its  waters  into  the  Des 
Moines  river,  within  the  limits  of  the  city  of  Des  Moines.  This 
stream  affords  many  excellent  mill  privileges,  some  of  which  have 
been  improved.  The  Des  Moines  flows  from  northwest  to  south- 
east, not  less  than  300  miles  through  Iowa,  and  drains  over  10,000 
square  miles  of  its  territory.  At  an  early  day,  steamboats  at 
certain  seasons  of  the  year  navigated  this  river  as  far  up  as  the 
“ Raccoon  Forks,”  and  a large  grant  of  land  was  made  by  Con- 
gress to  the  State  for  the  purpose  of  improving  its  navigation. 
The  land  was  subsequently  diverted  to  the  construction  of  the 
Des  Moines  Valley  Railroad.  Before  this  diversion  several  dams 
were  erected  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  river,  which  afford  a 
vast  amount  of  hydraulic  power  to  that  part  of  the  State. 

The  next  river  above  the  Des  Moines  is  Skunk,  which  has  its 
source  in  Hamilton  county  north  of  the  centre  of  the  State.  It 
traverses  a southeast  course,  having  two  principal  branches — 
their  aggregate  length  being  about  450  miles.  They  drain 
about  8,000  square  miles  of  territory,  and  afford  many  excellent 
mill  sites. 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


291 


The  next  is  Iowa  river,  which  rises  in  several  branches  among 
the  lakes  in  Hancock  and  Winnebago  counties,  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  State.  Its  great  eastern  branch  is  Red  Cedar,  having 
its  source  among  the  lakes  in  Minnesota.  In  size.  Red  Cedar  is 
the  second  interior  river  of  the  State,  and  is  of  great  importance  as 
affording  immense  water-power.  Shell  Rock  river  is  a tributary 
of  Red  Cedar,  and  is  valuable  to  Northern  Iowa,  on  account  of 
its  fine  water-power.  The  aggregate  length  of  Iowa  and  Red 
Cedar  rivers  is  about  500  miles,  and  they  drain  about  12,000 
square  miles  of  territory. 

The  Wapsipinicon  river  rises  in  Minnesota,  and  hows  in  a 
southeasterly  direction  over  200  miles  through  Iowa,  draining, 
with  its  branches,  a belt  of  territory  only  about  twelve  miles 
wide.  This  stream  is  usually  called  “Wapsi’’by  the  settlers, 
and  is  valuable  as  furnishing  good  vvater-power  for  machinery. 

Maquoketa  river,  the  next  considerable  tributary  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, is  about  160  miles  long,  and  drains  about  3,000  square 
miles  of  territory. 

Turkey  river  is  about  130  miles  long,  and  drains  some  2,000 
square  miles.  It  rises  in  Howard  county,  runs  southeast,  and 
empties  into  the  Mississippi  near  the  south  line  of  Clayton 
county. 

Upper  Iowa  river  also  rises  in  Howard  county,  flows  nearly 
east,  and  empties  into  the  Mississippi  near  the  northeast  corner 
of  the  State,  passing  through  a narrow,  but  picturesque  and 
beautiful  valley.  This  portion  of  the  State  is  somewhat  broken, 
and  the  streams  have  cut  their  channels  deeply  into  the  rocks, 
so  that  in  many  places  they  are  bordered  by  bluffs  from  30c  to 
400  feet  high.  They  flow  rapidly,  and  furnish  ample  water- 
power at  numerous  points. 

Having  mentioned  the  rivers  which  drain  the  eastern  three- 
fourths  of  the  State,  we  will  now  cross  the  great  “water-shed’" 
to  the  Missouri  and. its  tributaries. 

The  Missouri  river,  forming  a little  over  two-thirds  of  the 
length  of  the  western  boundary  line,  is  navigable  for  large-sized 
steamboats  for  a distance  of  1,950  miles  above  the  point  (Sioux 
City)  where  it  first  touches  the  western  border.  It  is,  therefore. 


292 


THE  MISSOURI  AND  BIG  SIOUX  RIVERS. 


a highway  of  no  little  importance  to  the  commerce  of  W estern 
Iowa.  During  the  season  of  navigation  last  year,  over  fifty 
steamers  ascended  the  river  above  Sioux  City,  most  of  which 
were  laden  with  stores  for  the  mining  region  above  Fort  Benton. 
We  will  now  refer  to  the  larger  tributaries  of  the  Missouri,  which 
drain  the  western  portion  of  Iowa. 

The  Big  Sioux  river  forms  about  seventy  miles  of  the  western 
boundary  of  the  State,  its  general  course  being  nearly  from  north 
to  south.  It  has  several  small  tributaries,  draining  the  counties 
of  Plymouth,  Sioux,  Lyon,  Osceola  and  O’Brien,  in  Northwestern 
Iowa.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  Rock  river — a beau- 
tiful little  stream  running  through  the  counties  of  Lyon  and 
Sioux.  It  is  supported  by  springs,  and  affords  a volume  of 
water  sufficient  for  propelling  machinery.  Big  Sioux  river  was 
once  regarded  as  a navigable  stream,  and  steamboats  of  a small 
size  have  on  several  occasions  ascended  it  for  some  distance.  It 
is  not,  however,  now  considered  a safe  stream  for  navigation. 
It  empties  into  the  Missouri  about  two  miles  above  Sioux  City, 
and  some  four  miles  below  the  northwest  corner  of  Woodbury 
county.  It  drains  about  i,ooo  square  miles  of  Iowa  territory. 

Just  below  Sioux  City,  Floyd  river  empties  into  the  Missouri. 
It  is  a small  stream,  but  flows  through  a rich  and  beautiful  valley. 
Its  length  is  about  loo  miles,  and  it  drains  nearly  1,500  square 
miles  of  territory.  Several  mills  have  been  erected  on  this 
stream,  and  there  are  other  mill  sites  which  will  doubtless  be 
improved  in  due  time. 

Little  Sioux  river  is  one  of  the  most  important  streams  of 
Northwestern  Iowa.  It  rises  in  the  vicinity  of  Spirit  and  Okoboji 
lakes,  near  the  Minnesota  line,  and  meanders  through  various 
counties  a distance  of  nearly  300  miles  to  its  confluence  with 
the  Missouri  near  the  northwest  corner  of  Harrison  county. 
With  its  tributaries  it  drains  not  less  than  5,000  square  miles. 
Several  small  mills  have  been  erected  on  this  stream,  and  others 
doubtless  will  be  when  needed. 

Boyer  river  is  the  next  stream  of  considerable  size  below  the 
Little  Sioux.  It  rises  in  Sac  county  and  flows  southwest  to  the 
Missouri  in  Pottawotamie  county.  Its  entire  length  is  about 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


293 

150  miles,  and  drains  not  less  than  2,000  square  miles  of  terri- 
tory. It  is  a small  stream,  meandering  through  a rich  and  lovely 
valley.  The  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railroad  passes  down 
this  valley  some  sixty  miles. 

Going  down  the  Missouri,  and  passing  several  small  streams, 
which  have  not  been  dignified  with  the  name  of  rivers,  we  come 
to  the  Nishnabotna,  which  empties  into  the  Missouri  some  twenty 
miles  below  the  southwest  corner  of  our  State.  It  has  three 
principal  branches,  with  an  aggregate  length  of  350  miles. 
These  streams  drain  about  5,000  square  miles  of  Southwestern 
Iowa.  They  flow  through  valleys  of  unsurpassed  beauty  and 
fertility,  and  furnish  good  water-power  at  various  points,  though 
in  this  respect  they  are  not  equal  to  the  streams  in  the  north- 
eastern portion  of  the  State. 

The  southern  portion  of  the  State  is  drained  by  several  streams 
that  flow  into  the  Missouri  river,  in  the  State  of  Missouri.  The 
most  important  of  these  are  Chariton,  Grand,  Platte,  One  Hun- 
dred and  Two,  and  the  three  Nodaways — East,  West  and  Middle. 
All  of  these  afford  water-power  for  machinery,  and  present 
splendid  valleys  of  rich  farming  lands. 

We  have  above  only  mentioned  the  streams  that  have  been 
designated  as  rivers,  but  there  are  many  other  streams  of  great 
importance  and  value  to  different  portions  of  the  State,  draining 
the  country,  furnishing  mill-sites,  and  adding  to  the  variety  and 
beauty  of  the  scenery.  So  admirable  is  the  natural  drainage  of 
almost  the  entire  State,  that  the  farmer  who  has  not  a stream 
of  living  water  on  his  premises  is  an  exception  to  the  general 
rule. 

Lakes, — In  some  of  the  northern  counties  of  Iowa  there  are 
many  small,  but  beautiful  lakes,  some  of  which  we  will  notice. 
They  are  a part  of  the  system  of  lakes  extending  far  northward 
into  Minnesota,  and  most  of  them  present  many  interesting  fea- 
tures which  the  limits  of  our  sketch  will  not  permit  us  to  give  in 
detail.  The  following  are  among  the  most  noted  of  the  lakes  of 
Northern  Iowa:  Clear  lake,  in  Cerro  Gordo  county;  Rice  lake. 
Silver  lake,  and  Bright’s  lake,  in  Worth  county;  Crystal  lake. 
Eagle  lake.  Lake  Edward,  and  Twin  lakes,  im  Hancock  county; 


294 


FHE  LAKES  OF  IOWA. 


Owl  lake,  in  Humboldt  county;  Lake  Gertrude,  Lake  Cornelia, 
Elm  lake,  and  Wall  lake,  in  Wright  county;  Lake  Caro,  in  Ham- 
ilton county;  Twin  lakes,  in  Calhoun  county;  Wall  lake,  in  Sac 
county;  Swan  lake,  in  Emmet  county;  Storm  lake,  in  Buena 
Vista  county;  and  Okoboji  and  Spirit  lakes,  in  Dickinson  county. 
Nearly  all  of  these  are  deep  and  clear,  abounding  In  many 
excellent  varieties  of  fish,  which  are  caught  abundantly  by  the 
settlers  at  all  proper  seasons  of  the  year.  The  name  “ Wall 
Lake,”  applied  to  several  of  these  bodies  of  water,  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  a line  or  ridge  of  boulders  extends  around 
them,  giving  them  somewhat  the  appearance  of  having  been 
walled.  Most  of  them  exhibit  the  same  appearance  in  this 
respect  to  a greater  or  less  extent.  Lake  Okoboji,  Spirit  lake. 
Storm  lake,  and  Clear  lake  are  the  largest  of  the  Northern  Iowa 
lakes.  All  of  them,  except  Storm  lake,  have  fine  bodies  of  tim- 
ber on  their  borders.  Lake  Okoboji  Is  about  fifteen  miles  long, 
and  from  a quarter  of  a mile  to  two  miles  wide.  Spirit  lake, 
just  north  of  it,  embraces  about  ten  square  miles,  the  northern 
border  extending  to  the  Minnesota  line.  Storm  lake  is  in  size 
about  three  miles  east  and  west  by  two  north  and  south.  Clear 
lake  is  about  seven  miles  long  by  two  miles  wide.  The  dry 
rolling  land  usually  extends  up  to  the  borders  of  these  lakes, 
making  them  delightful  resorts  for  excursion  or  fishing  parties, 
and  they  are  now  attracting  attention  as  places  of  resort,  on 
account  of  the  beauty  of  their  natural  scenery,  as  well  as  the 
inducements  which  they  afford  to  hunting  and  fishing  parties. 

Prairie  and  Timber. — One  of  the  peculiar  features  of  the 
topography  of  the  northwest  is  the  predominance  of  prairies. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  about  nine-tenths  of  the  surface  of 
Iowa  Is  prairie.  The  timber  is  generally  found  In  heavy  bodies 
skirting  the  streams  and  lakes,  but  there  are  also  many  isolated 
groves  standing,  like  islands  in  the  sea,  far  out  on  the  prairies. 
The  eastern  half  of  the  State  contains  a larger  proportion  of 
timber  than  the  western.  The  following  are  the  leading  varie- 
ties of  timber:  White,  black,  and  burr  oak,  black  walnut,  of  ex- 
cellent quality,  but  now  almost  entirely  picked  out  and  shipped 
to  England,  butternut,  hickory,  hard  and  soft  maple,  cherry,  red 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRIC. 


295 

and  white  elm,  ash,  linn,  hackberry,  birch,  honey  locust,  cotton- 
wood, and  quaking  asp.  A few  sycamore  trees  are  found  in 
certain  localities  along  the  streams.  Groves  of  red  cedar  also 
prevail,  especially  along  Iowa  and  Cedar  rivers,  and  a few 
isolated  pine  trees  are  scattered  along  the  bluffs  of  some  of  the 
streams  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State. 

The  great  demand  for  timber  for  railroad  construction,  for 
ties,  stations,  bridges,  and  for  a time  for  fuel,  as  well  as  for  dwell- 
ings, telegraph  poles,  for  agricultural  and  mining  machinery,  and 
mine  supports,  has  within  the  last  decade  nearly  stripped  Iowa 
of  its  most  valuable  timber ; and  the  English  movement  for  cull- 
ing out  all  her  valuable  black  walnut  trees,  working  them  up 
roughly  by  portable  saw-mills,  and  shipping  the  timber  at  once, 
is  likely  to  deprive  the  country  of  one  of  its  best  sources  of 
supply  of  this  valuable  wood. 

Nearly  all  kinds  of  timber  common  to  Iowa  have  been  found 
to  grow  rapidly  when  transplanted  upon  the  prairies,  or  when 
propagated  from  the  planting  of  seeds.  Only  a few  years  and  a 
little  expense  are  required  for  the  settler  to  raise  a grove  suffi- 
cient to  afford  him  a supply  of  fuel.  The  kinds  most  easily 
propagated,  and  of  rapid  growth,  are  cottonwood,  maple,  and 
walnut.  All  our  prairie  soils  are  adapted  to  their  growth. 
Tree-planting  is  encouraged  by  national  and  State  laws,  and  is 
now  actively  practised,  but  it  will  be  long  before  these  trees  will, 
Gther  in  quality  or  quantity,  supply  the  loss  of  those  which  have 
been  so  recklessly  sacrificed. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — The  surface  geology  of  Iowa,  like 
that  of  Nebraska  and  partly  of  Kansas,  is  peculiar  and  very 
interesting  from  its  relation  to  the  soil  of  the  State.  Far  back 
in  the  glacial  period  this  whole  region,  including  Iowa,  South- 
eastern Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Eastern  Kansas,  was  less  ele- 
vated than  it  now  is,  and  formed  the  bed  of  a vast  lake  at  least 
500  miles  in  length  and  nearly  that  in  width.  Through  this  lake 
flowed  the  Missouri,  which  had  then  received  its  greatest  affluent, 
the  Yellowstone.  Its  other  principal  tributaries  at  that  time 
flowed  into  the  lake.  For  ages  numerous  streams  brought  into 
the  lake  the  debris  of  mountain  and  hill,  and  the  glaciers  added 


IOWA  COAL. 


296 

their  contribution  from  their  moraines.  At  length  there  came  a 
time  of  upheaval ; this  vast  lake  was  drained  till  it  became  an 
immense  marsh  of  soft  and  plastic  mud ; through  this  the  rivers 
ploughed  their  way,  cutting  through  the  deposits  of  gravel,  of 
silica,  and  of  decayed  vegetation  easily,  and  left  on  either  side 
high  bluffs,  which,  however,  having  no  rocky  bond  of  union,  often 
crumbled  and  fell  into  the  streams.  After  another  long  period 
the  marsh  became  dry  land,  and  its  surface,  composed  of  drift 
or  gravel,  loess  or  bluff  deposit,  a very  fine  and  rich  silicious 
powder,  and  alluvium  as  the  result  of  decayed  vegetation,  fur- 
nished the  finest  soil  in  the  world.  But  beneath  this  surface, 
which  is  of  varying,  though  everywhere  of  considerable  thick- 
ness, the  rivers,  which  have  plowed  their  way  through  its  lowest 
layers,  reveal  other  important  and  economically  valuable  strata. 
The  cretaceous  beds  underlie  this  vast  alluvial  and  diluvial 
deposit,  and  below  them  we  come  to  the  coal  measures  of  the 
carboniferous  era,  whose  existence  was  first  discovered  from 
their  outcrop  in  the  river  bluffs. 

“ The  coal  of  Iowa  is  bituminous,  and  is  a true  coal,  not  a lig- 
nite. It  covers  an  area  of  at  least  20,000  square  miles,  and  coal 
is  successfully  mined  in  more  than  thirty  counties  of  the  State. 
It  is  not  of  identical  quality  in  all  parts  of  the  coal  field,  but  that 
produced  in  Appanoose,  Boone,  Davis,  Dallas,  Hamilton,  Har- 
din, Jefferson,  Mahaska,  Marion,  Monroe,  Polk,  Van  Buren, 
Wapello,  Webster,  and  perhaps  some  other  counties,  is  of  excel- 
lent quality  and  easily  raised. 

“ The  great  productive  coal  field  of  Iowa  is  embraced  chiefly 
within  the  valley  of  the  Des  Moines  river  and  its  tributaries,  ex- 
tending up  the  valley  from  Lee  county  nearly  to  the  north  line 
of  Webster  county.  Within  the  coal  field  embraced  by  this  val- 
ley deep  mining  is  nowhere  necessary.  The  Des  Moines  and 
its  larger  tributaries  have  generally  cut  their  channels  down 
through  all  the  coal  measure  strata. 

“The  coal  of  Iowa  is  equal  in  quality  and  value  to  coal  of  the 
same  class  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  veins  which  have 
so  far  been  worked  are  from  three  to  eight  feet  in  thickness,  but 
it  is  not  necessary  to  dig  from  one  thousand  to  two  thousand  feet 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


297 


to  reach  the  coal,  as  miners  are  obliged  to  do  in  some  countries. 
But  little  coal  has  in  this  State  been  raised  from  a depth  greater 
than  one  hundred  feet. 

“ Professor  Gustavus  Hinrich,  of  the  State  University,  who 
also  officiated  as  State  Chemist  in  the  prosecution  of  the  State 
geological  survey,  gives  an  analysis  showing  the  comparative 
value  of  Iowa  coal  with  that  of  other  countries.  The  following 
is  from  a table  prepared  by  him — 100  representing  the  combus- 
tible : 


Name  and  Locality. 

1 

Carbon. 

Bitumen. 

Ashes.  I 

Moisture. 

Equivalent. 

Talue. 

Brown  coal,  from  Arbesan,  Bohemia  . . . 

36 

64 

3 

1 1 

II4 

88 

Brown  coal,  from  Bilin,  Bohemia  .... 

40 

67 

16 

00 

123 

81 

Bituminous  coal,  from  Bentheu,  Silesia 

51 

49 

21 

5 

126 

80 

Cannel  coal,  from  Wigan,  England 

61 

39 

10 

3 

II3 

87 

Anthracite,  from  Pennsylvania 

94 

6 

2 

2 

104 

96 

Iowa  coals — average 

50 

50 

5 

5 

I 10 

90 

“In  this  table  the  excess  of  the  equivalent  above  100,  ex- 
presses the  amount  of  impurities  (ashes  and  moisture)  in  the 
coal.  The  analysis  shows  that  the  average  Iowa  coals  contain 
only  ten  parts  of  impurities  for  one  part  of  combustible  (carbon 
and  bitumen)  being  the  purest  of  all  the  samples  analyzed  except 
the  anthracite  from  Pennsylvania. 

“ Many  years  ago  (in  1868)  the  production  of  this  coal  in 
Iowa  was  reported  as  241,453  tons,  or  more  than  six  million 
bushels.  It  has  increased  steadily  since  that  time,  and  in  1877 
had  reached  over  1,500,000  tons,  or  about  forty  million  bushels. 
It  is  still  increasing,  and  is  used  in  several  of  the  adjacent  States. 

''Peat. — During  the  last  thirteen  or  fourteenyears  large  deposits 
of  peat,  existing  in  several  of  the  northern  counties  of  the  State, 
have  attracted  considerable  attention.  In  1866,  Dr.  White,  the 
State  Geologist,  made  careful  observations  in  some  of  those 
counties,  including  Franklin,  Wright,  Cerro  Gordo,  Hancock, 
Winnebago,  Worth  and  Kossuth.  In  1869,  Hon.  A.  R.  Fulton 
also  visited  the  counties  named,  and  from  personal  observation 


THE  PEAT  BEDS. 


298 

was  convinced  that  the  deposits  of  peat  were  as  extensive  as  repre- 
sented by  the  State  Geologist.  It  is  estimated  that  the  counties 
above  named  contain  an  average  of  at  least  four  thousand  acres 
each  of  good  peat  lands.  The  depth  of  the  beds  is  from  four 
to  ten  feet,  and  the  quality  is  but  little,  if  any,  inferior  to  that  of 
Ireland.  As  yet,  but  little  use  has  been  made  of  it  as  fuel,  but 
when  it  is  considered  that  it  lies  wholly  beyond  the  coal-field,  in 
a sparsely  timbered  region  of  the  State,  its  prospective  value  is 
regarded  as  very  great.  Dr.  White  estimates  that  1 60  acres  of 
peat,  four  feet  deep,  will  supply  two  hundred  and  thirteen  fami- 
lies with  fuel  for  upwards  of  twenty-five  years.  It  must  not  be 
inferred  that  the  presence  of  these  peat  beds  in  that  part  of  the 
State  is  in  any  degree  prejudicial  to  health,  for  such  is  not  the 
case.  The  dry,  rolling  prairie  land  usually  comes  up  to  the  very 
border  of  the  peat  marsh,  and  the  winds,  or  breezes,  which  pre- 
vail through  the  summer  season,  do  not  allow  water  to  become 
stagnant.  Nature  seems  to  have  designed  these  peat  deposits 
to  supply  the  deficiency  of  other  material  for  fuel.  The  penetra 
tion  of  this  portion  of  the  State  by  railroads  and  the  rapid 
growth  of  timber  may  leave  a resort  to  peat  for  fuel  as  a matter 
of  choice,  and  not  of  necessity.  It  therefore  remains  to  be  seen 
of  what  economic  value  in  the  future  the  peat  beds  of  Iowa  may 
be.  Peat  has  also  been  found  in  Muscatine,  Linn,  Clinton,  and 
other  eastern  and  southern  counties  of  the  State,  but  the  fertile 
region  of  Northern  Iowa,  least  favored  with  other  kinds  of  fuel, 
is  peculiarly  the  peat  region  of  the  State.  Neither  gold  nor  sil- 
ver has  been  found  in  Iowa,  except  a very  small  percentage  of 
the  latter  in  the  galena  or  lead  ores. 

''Lead. — Since  the  year  1833,  large  quantities  of  lead  have 
been  mined  in  the  vicinity  of  Dubuque,  and  the  business  is  still 
•carried  on  successfully.  From  four  to  six  million  pounds  of  ore 
have  been  smelted  annually  at  the  Dubuque  mines,  yielding  from 
sixty-eight  to  seventy  per  cent,  of  lead.  So  far  as  known,  the 
lead  deposits  of  Iowa  that  may  be  profitably  worked  are  con- 
fined to  a belt  of  four  or  five  miles  in  width  along  the  Mississippi, 
above  and  below  the  city  of  Dubuque. 

"Other  Metals. — Iron,  copper  and  zinc  have  been  found  in 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


299 


limited  quantities  in  different  parts  of  the  State — the  last-named 
metal  being  chiefly  associated  with  the  lead  deposits. 

^^Lime. — Good  material  for  the  manufacture  of  quick-lime  is 
found  in  abundance  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  State.  Even  in  the 
northwestern  counties,  where  there  are  but  few  exposures  of 
rock  ‘ in  place,’  limestone  is  found  among  the  boulders  scattered 
over  the  prairies  and  about  the  lakes.  So  abundant  is  limestone, 
suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  quick-lime,  that  it  is  needless  to 
mention  any  particular  locality  as  possessing  superior  advan- 
tages in  furnishing  this  useful  building  material.  At  the  follow- 
ing points  parties  have  been  engaged  somewhat  extensively  in 
the  manufacture  of  lime,  to  wit:  Fort  Dodge,  Webster  county; 
Springvale,  Humboldt  county ; Orford  and  Indiantown,  Tama 
county;  Iowa  Falls,  Hardin  county;  Mitchell,  Mitchell  county; 
and  at  nearly  all  the  towns  along  the  streams  northeast  of  Cedar 
river. 

'^Buildmg  Stone. — There  is  no  scarcity  of  good  building  stone 
to  be  found  along  nearly  all  the  streams  east  of  the  Des  Moines 
river,  and  along  that  stream  from  its  mouth  up  to  the  north  line 
of  Humboldt  county.  Some  of  the  counties  west  of  the  Des 
Moines,  as  Cass  and  Madison,  as  well  as  most  ot  the  southern 
counties  of  the  State,  are  supplied  with  good  building  stone. 
Building  stone  of  peculiarly  fine  quality  is  quarried  at  and  near 
the  following  places:  Keosauqua,  Van  Buren  county;  Mt. 
Pleasant,  Henry  county;  Fairfield,  Jefferson  county;  Ottumwa, 
Wapello  county ; Winterset,  Madison  county ; Fort  Dodge, 
Webster  county;  Springvale  and  Dakota,  Humboldt  county; 
Marshalltown,  Marshall  county;  Orford,  Tama  county;  Vinton, 
Benton  county ; Charles  City,  Floyd  county ; Mason  City,  Cerro 
Gordo  county;  Mitchell  and  Osage,  Mitchell  county;  Anamosa, 
Jones  county;  Iowa  Falls,  Hardin  county;  Hampton,  Franklin 
county;  and  at  nearly  all  points  along  the  Mississippi  river. 
In  some  places,  as  in  Marshall  and  Tama  counties,  several  spe- 
cies of  marble  are  found,  which  are  susceptible  of  the  finest 
finish,  and  are  very  beautiful. 

Gypsum. — One  of  the  finest  and  purest  deposits  of  gypsum 
known  in  the  world  exists  at  Fort  Dodge,  in  this  State.  It  is 


300 


MJNERALS  AND  SOIL  OF  IOWA. 


confined  to  an  area  of  about  six  by  three  miles  on  both  sides  of 
the  Des  Moines  river,  and  is  found  to  be  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  feet  in  thickness.  The  main  deposit  is  of  uniform  gray 
color,  but  large  masses  of  almost  pure  white  (resembling  alabas- 
ter) have  been  found  embedded  in  the  main  deposits.  The  quan- 
tity of  this  article  is  practically  inexhaustible,  and  the  time  will 
certainly  come  when  it  will  be  a source  of  wealth  to  that  part  of 
the  State.  So  far,  it  has  only  been  used  to  a limited  extent  for 
paving  and  building  purposes,  if  we  except  the  fraud  practised 
upon  our  Eastern  cousins  by  those  who  manufactured  from  it  that 
great  humbug  and  swindle  of  the  century,  the  ‘ Cardiff  Giant ! ’ 
Plaster-of-paris  manufactured  from  the  Fort  Dodge  gypsum  has 
been  found  equal  to  the  best  in  quality. 

''Clays. — In  nearly  all  parts  of  the  State  the  material  suitable 
for  the  manufacture  of  brick  is  found  in  abundance.  Sand  is  ob- 
tained in  the  bluffs  along  the  streams  and  in  their  beds.  Potter's 
clay,  and  fire-clay  suitable  for  fire-brick,  are  found  in  many 
places.  An  excellent  article  of  fire-brick  is  made  at  Eldora, 
Hardin  county,  where  there  are  also  several  extensive  potteries 
in  operation.  Fire-clay  is  usually  found  underlying  the  coal- 
seams.  There  are  extensive  potteries  in  operation  in  the  coun- 
ties of  Lee,  Van  Buren,  Des  Moines,  Wapello,  Boone,  Hamilton, 
Hardin,  and  perhaps  others. 

"Soil. — It  is  supposed  that  there  is  nowhere  upon  the  globe  an 
equal  area  of  surface  with  so  small  a proportion  of  untillable  land 
as  we  find  in  Iowa.  The  soil  is  generally  a drift  deposit,  with  a 
deep  covering  of  vegetable  mould,  and  on  the  highest  prairies  is 
almost  equal  in  fertility  to  the  alluvial  valleys  of  the  rivers  in 
other  States.  The  soil  in  the  valleys  of  our  streams  is  largely 
alluvial,  producing  a rapid  and  luxuriant  growth  of  all  kinds  of 
vegetation.  The  valleys  usually  vary  in  extent  according  to  the 
size  of  the  stream.  On  the  Iowa  side  of  the  Missouri  river,  from 
the  southwest  corner  of  the  State  to  Sioux  City,  a distance  of 
over  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  there  is  a continuous  belt  of 
alluvial  ‘ bottom,’  or  valley  land,  varying  in  width  from  five  to 
twenty  miles,  and  of  surpassing  fertility.  This  valley  is  bordered 
by  a continuous  line  of  bluffs,  rising  from  one  to  two  hundred 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


301 


feet,  and  presenting  many  picturesque  outlines  when  seen  at  a 
distance.  The  bluffs  are  composed  of  a peculiar  formation,  to 
which  has  been  given  the  name  of  loess  or  ‘ bluff  deposit.’  It  is 
of  a yellow  color,  and  is  composed  of  a fine  silicious  matter,  with 
some  clay  and  limey  concretions.  This  deposit  in  many  places 
extends  eastward  entirely  across  the  counties  bordering  the  Mis- 
souri river,  and  is  of  great  fertility,  promoting  a luxuriant  growth 
of  grain  and  vegetables. 

''^Mineral  Paint. — In  Montgomery  county  a fine  vein  of  clay, 
containing  a large  proportion  of  ochre,  was  several  years  ago 
discovered,  and  has  been  extensively  used  in  that  part  of  the 
State  for  painting  barns  and  out^houses.  It  is  of  a dark  red 
color,  and  is  believed  to  be  equal  in  quality,  if  properly  manufac- 
tured, to  the  mineral  paints  imported  from  other  States.  The 
use  of  it  was  first  introduced  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Packard,  of  Red  Oak, 
on  whose  land  there  is  an  extensive  deposit  of  this  material. 

''Spring  and  Well  Water. — As  before  stated,  the  surface  of 
Iowa  is  generally  drained  by  the  rolling  or  undulating  character 
of  the  country,  and  the  numerous  streams,  large  and  small. 
This  fact  might  lead  some  to  suppose  that  it  might  be  difficult  to 
procure  good  spring  or  well  water  for  domestic  uses.  S^ch, 
however,  is  not  the  case,  for  good  pure  well  water  is  easily  ob- 
tained all  over  the  State,  even  on  the  highest  prairies.  It  is 
rarely  necessary  to  dig  more  than  thirty  feet  deep  to  find  an 
abundance  of  that  most  indispensable  element,  good  water. 
Along  the  streams  are  found  many  springs  breaking  out  from 
the  banks,  affording  a constant  supply  of  pure  water.  As  a rule,  - 
it  is  necessary  to  dig  deeper  for  well  water  in  the  timber  portions 
of  the  State,  than  on  the  prairies.  Nearly  all  the  spring  and 
well  waters  of  the  State  contain  a small  proportion  of  lime,  as 
they  do  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States.  There  are  some 
springs  which  contain  mineral  properties,  similar  to  the  springs 
often  resorted  to  by  invalids  and  others  in  other  States.  'In 
Davis  county  there  are  some  ‘ Salt  Springs,’  as  they  are  com- 
monly called,  the  water  being  found  to  contain  a considerable 
amount  of  common  salt,  sulphuric  acid,  and  other  mineral  ingre- 
dients. Mineral  waters  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  State. 


302 


CL /MATE  OF  IOWA. 


^'Natural  Curiosities, — Aside  from  its  walled  lakes  and  some 
very  beautiful  waterfalls,  the  State  does  not  abound  in  natural 
wonders.  The  ‘ Ice  Cave  ’ at  Decorah,  in  the  northeastern  part 
of  the  State,  deserves  notice.  It  is  under  a bluff  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  upper  Iowa  river,  and  has  this  wonderful  peculiarity 
that  while  in  winter  no  ice  is  to  be  found  in  it,  it  forms  in  spring 
and  sumrr^er,  and  thaws  out  again  upon  the  advent  of  cold 
weather.  Nine  miles  east  of  Decorah,  on  Trout  river,  there  is 
an  underground  stream  navigable  for  canoes,  and  which  has 
been  explored  for  a long  distance. 

''Climate  and  Meteorology. — The  average  or  mean  temperature, 
from  a series  of  observations  taken  at  different  points  and  in 
different  years,  is  found  to  be  48°.  The  temperature  of  the  win- 
ters is  usually  somewhat  lower  than  that  of  the  Eastern  States, 
but  that  of  the  other  seasons  higher,  so  that  all  vegetation  is 
forced  forward  rapidly  to  maturity.  There  is  a somewhat  less 
average  amount  of  rain  than  that  which  falls  in  the  States  bor- 
dering on  the  Atlantic.  The  quantity  which  falls  yearly  in  Iowa 
is  tound  to  average  about  forty  and  one-half  inches,  and  of  snow 
thirty  inches — equivalent  to  three  inches  of  rain,  making  a total 
of  forty-three  and  one-half  inches.  There  is  occasionally  a sea- 
son which  greatly  exceeds  the  average  in  the  fall  of  rain,  but 
never  one  marked  with  such  extreme  drought  as  to  occasion  a 
failure  of  crops. 

“ The  opinion  may  prevail  to  some  extent  that  the  climate, 
especially  of  Northern  Iowa,  is  rigorous,  and  the  winters  long 
and  severe.  It  is  true  that  the  mercury  usually  sinks  lower  than 
in  the  States  farther  south,  but  at  the  same  time  the  atmosphere 
is  dry  and  invigorating,  and  the  seasons  not  marked  by  the  fre- 
quent and  sudden  changes  which  are  experienced  in  latitudes 
farther  south.  The  winters  are  equally  as  pleasant  and  more 
healthful  than  in  the  Eastern  or  Middle  States.  Pulmonary  and 
other  diseases,  arising  from  frequent  changes  of  temperature 
and  miasmatic  influences,  are  almost  unknown,  unless  contracted 
elsewhere.  Winter  usually  commences  in  December  and  ends 
n March.  The  spring,  summer,  and  fall  months  are  delightful. 
Iowa  is  noted  for  the  glory  and  beauty  of  its  autumns.  That 


HEAPING — A PRAIRIE  HOMESTEAD — THRESHING 


V',  , 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


303 

gorgeous  season  denominated  ‘Indian  summer’  cannot  be  de^ 
scribed,  and  in  Iowa  it  is  peculiarly  charming.  Day  after  day, 
for  weeks,  the  sun  is  veiled  in  a hazy  splendor,  while  the  forests 
are  tinged  with  the  most  gorgeous  hues,  imparting  to  all  nature 
something  of  the  enchantments  of  fairyland.  Almost  imper- 
ceptibly, these  golden  days  merge  into  winter,  which  holds  its 
stern  reign  without  the  disagreeable  changes  experienced  in 
other  climes,  until  spring  ushers  in  another  season  of  life  and 
beauty.” 


CHAPTER  IX. 

KANSAS. 

Kansas  is,  geographically,  the  central  State  of  the  American 
Union,  and  one  of  the  largest  and  most  enterprising  of  the  great 
States  of  the  central  belt  of  “Our  Western  Empire.”  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Nebraska,  on  the  east  by  Missouri,  on 
the  south  by  the  Indian  Territory,  and  on  the  west  by  Colorado. 
It  would  be  a perfect  parallelogram,  but  that  the  Missouri  river 
cuts  off  a slice  of  its  northeast  corner  and  hands  it  over  to  Mis- 
souri. It  is  situated  between  the  37th  and  the  40th  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  and  between  the  meridians  of  94°  36'  and  102°  of 
west  longitude  from  Greenwich,  and  is  404  miles  long  from  east 
to  west,  and  208  miles  wide  from  north  to  south.  The  latest 
Land  Office  Report  makes  its  area  82,080  square  miles,  or 
5 1,770,240  acres.  Population  (1890),  1,427,096. 

Topography  afid  Sui'face — Rivers  and  Lakes — Plains,  Prairies 
and  Valleys. — The  topography  of  the  State  shows  an  alternation 
of  broad,  level  river  valleys  and  high  rolling  prairies,  the  whole 
forming  a series  of  gentle  undulating  plateaus,  sloping  at  an 
average  inclination  of  seven  and  a-half  feet  per  mile  from  the 
mountains  toward  the  Missouri  river.  Thus  at  Monotony  the 
altitude  is  3,792  feet  ; at  Wallace,  Kansas,  3,319  feet;  at  Ellis, 
2,135  feet  ; at  Abilene,  1,173  ; at  Topeka,  904  feet;  and  at 


304 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  KANSAS. 


Wyandotte,  707  feet.  The  elevations  of  corresponding  points  in 
the  Arkansas  valley  and  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe 
Railway,  are  a little  lower  in  the  west,  but  a little  higher  as  we 
go  east,  showing  a moderate  declination  from  north  to  southwest, 
as  well  as  a more  marked  one  from  west  to  east;  thus, 
Sargent,  at  the  west  boundary  of  the  State,  is  3,129  feet; 
Lakin,  3,013;  Kinsley,  2,200;  Newton,  1,433;  Burlington,  i,o55, 
and  Fort  Scott,  912  feet. 

The  principal  rivers  of  the  State  are  the  Missouri,  which 
washes  its  northeastern  corner  for  a distance  of  forty  or  fifty 
miles  ; the  Arkansas,  which  leaves  the  State  near  the  97  meri- 
dian, after  traversing  the  whole  southern  and  southwestern  por- 
tion of  it ; the  larger  tributaries  of  this  noble  river,  the  North 
and  South  Forks  of  the  Cimmaron,  Salt  and  Red  Forks  of  the 
Arkansas,  Chikaskia,  Verdigris  and  Neosho  rivers  on  the  south 
bank,  and  the  Pawnee  and  Walnut  creeks  on  the  north  bank ; but 
most  important  of  all  for  the  State,  the  Kansas  or  Kaw  river,  one 
of  the  largest  tributaries  of  the  Missouri,  with  the  Republican 
and  Smoky  Hill  rivers,  by  whose  union  it  is  formed,  and  its  nu- 
merous affluents,  the  Big  Blue,  the  Solomon,  the  Saline,  the  Sol- 
dier, the  Beaver,  the  Delaware,  the  Stranger,  the  Sappa,  the 
Grasshopper  and  the  Wakarusa.  There  are  also  a few  smaller 
streams  in  the  northeast,  affluents  of  the  Missouri,  like  the  Ne- 
maha, etc.  These  streams  form  one  of  the  grandest  systems  of 
water-courses  in  the  whole  country. 

Though  the  surface  is  rolling  and  attains  so  considerable  an 
elevation  toward  the  western  border  of  the  State,  there  are  no 
mountains,  nor  hardly  any  ranges  of  hills  in  the  State ; occasion- 
ally the  bluffs  along  the  rivers  are  of  considerable  height  above 
the  streams,  and  in  rare  instances  one  or  two  isolated  buttes,  or 
masses  of  rock,  like  Castle  Rock,  in  Gove  county,  the  Twin 
Buttes,  in  Rooks  county,  or  the  Bluff,  in  Clarke  county,  attract 
attention.  The  State  is  not  remarkable  for  lakes  or  ponds,  but 
rather  for  their  absence.  There  are  more  in  the  comparatively  arid 
western  counties  than  in  the  eastern.  The  river  valleys  or  river 
bottoms,  as  they  are  called,  are  very  fertile,  but  except  in  the  Ar- 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  ^oS 

kansas  valley,  are  sometimes  flooded  by  the  swelling  of  the 
streams  from  the  melting  of  the  snow. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — Professor  B.  F.  Mudge,  the  emi- 
nent State  Geologist,  has  described  at  considerable  length,  and 
with  maps  and  sections,  the  geology,  general  and  economic,  of  the 
State.  The  following  summary  gives  as  good  an  idea  of  its  very 
simple  geological  formations  as  can  be  obtained  without  a geo- 
logical map.  As  we  have  already  said,  the  surface  has  a gradual 
but  double  descent  to  the  east  and  to  the  south,  or  south-south- 
east. The  streams  follow  the  same  general  direction.  The  sur- 
face, for  the  most  part,  is  a gentle  rolling  prairie,  with  few  steep 
hills  or  bluffs,  and  the  ravines  are  not  often  precipitous  or  deep. 
The  soil  which  forms  the  surface  of  the  whole  State,  in  both  val- 
ley and  high  prairie,  is  the  same  fine,  black  rich  loam,  so  common 
in  the  Western  States.  The  predominatinglimestones,  by  disin- 
tegration, aid  in  its  fertility,  but  the  extreme  fineness  of  all  the 
ingredients  acts  most  effectively  in  producing  its  richness.  On 
the  high  prairie  it  is  from  one  to  three  feet  deep ; in  the  bottom 
it  is  sometimes  twenty  feet.  There  are  a few  exceptions  to  this 
general  fertility  in  the  most  western  and  southwestern  counties, 
but  they  constitute  only  a small  proportion  of  the  whole.  The 
State  is  so  well  drained  that  there  are  very  few  valleys  with  stag- 
nant ponds,  and  there  is  not  a peat  swamp  of  fifty  acres  within 
its  boundaries.  The  lands  toward  the  Colorado  border  are  often 
spoken  of  as  alkaline  lands,  but  Professor  Mudge  says  that  they 
are  not  so.  In  fifteen  years  of  exploration  he  had  never  found 
but  two  springs  containing  alkalies,  and  had  never  seen  ten  acres 
of  land  in  one  place  which  had  been  injured  by  it. 


CHAPTER  X. 
LOUISIANA. 


Only  about  two-thirds  of  Louisiana  lie  within  the  bounds  of 
our  “Picturesque  West.”  Its  commercial  and  political  capital 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


306 

New  Orleans,  the  chief  city  of  the  Southwest,  is  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  Mississippi  river,  as  are  several  other  considerable  towns. 
Its  boundaries  are:  On  the  north,  Arkansas  and  Mississippi;  on 
the  east,  Mississippi,  and  for  the  greater  part  of  the  distance  the 
Mississippi  river  and  Sound;  south  and  southeast,  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico;  and  on  the  west,  Texas,  the  Sabine  river  being  the 
boundary  for  about  three-fourths  of  the  distance.  It  is  situated 
between  the  meridians  of  89°  and  94°  W.  from  Greenwich,  and 
between  the  parallels  of  28°  56'  and  33°  N.  latitude.  Its  extreme 
length  from  east  to  west  is  298  miles,  and  its  extreme  breadth 
from  north  to  south  280  miles.  Its  area  is  41,346  square  miles, 
or  26,461,440  acres. 

Surface  and  Topography^  Rivers,  Lakes,  Bayous,  Sounds  and 
Gtdfs, — The  highest  land  in  the  State,  the  hills  in  its  northern 
and  northwest  portions,  does  not  exceed  240  feet  in  height 
From  these  uplands  there  is  a gentle  slope  both  towards  the 
Mississippi  river  and  the  Gulf.  The  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  espe- 
cially below  New  Orleans,  is  below  the  level  of  the  Mississippi 
at  the  spring  floods ; and  at  least  8,450  miles,  or  one-fifth  of  the 
area  of  the  State,  is  only  protected  from  annual  submergence  by 
the  levees.  With  the  exception  of  a tract  in  Southeast  Cali- 
fornia, once  a part  of  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  the  greater  part  of 
the  State  of  Louisiana  is  the  lowest  land  in  “Our  Western  Em- 
pire.” The  rivers  are  the  Mississippi,  which  has  a course  of 
about  590  miles  within  the  State,  and  is  now,  through  the  labors 
of  Captain  Eads,  navigable  not  only  for  the  largest  steamers  but 
for  all  ocean  steamships  of  the  first-class,  from  its  mouth  to  and 
beyond  the  northern  boundary  of  the  State;  the  Red  river,  one 
of  its  largest  tributaries,  which  enters  the  State  near  its  north- 
west corner  and  crosses  it  diagonally  to  the  31st  parallel,  where 
it  joins  the  Mississippi;  the  Washita,  the  largest  affluent  of  the 
Red  river,  which  comes  into  the  State  from  Arkansas,  and  with 
its  two  large  branches,  the  Tensas  and  Boeuf,  drains  the  northern 
parishes  of  the  State;  the  Dugdemona,  the  Saline  Bayou,  and 
the  Bistineau  river  and  lake,  all  tributaries  of  the  Red  river, 
d'he  Sabine  river,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  forms  a part  of  the 
western  boundary  of  the  State,  but  receives  no  considerable  af- 


KUJSSIAN  VILLA'IE,  KANSAS — A .UUG-OUT — HAYING. 


J^IVEKS  AND  BAYOUS  OB  LOUISIANA. 


307 

fluents  on  the  east  bank.  The  Calcasieu  and  Mermenteau  are 
considerable  rivers,  both  having  several  tributary  bayous  or  slug- 
gish streams.  East  of  the  Mississippi  are  the  Pearl  river,  with  its 
tributary,  Bogue  Chitto,  the  Tangipahoa,  Tickfaw  and  Amite. 
There  are,  besides  these,  several  large  estuaries  or  bayous,  which 
are  really  secondary  mouths  or  outlets  of  the  Mississippi,  which 
in  flood-time  convey  a large  portion  of  its  waters  to  the  Gulf, 
and  at  other  times  drain  the  greater  part  of  Southern  Louisiana. 
Among  these  are:  Atchafalaya  Bayou  with  its  series  of  lakes  and 
inlets;  Vermillion  Bayou,  Bayou  Teche  which  connects  with  it. 
Bayou  de  Large,  Bayou  la  Fourche,  and  the  lakes,  bays  and  es- 
tuaries which  discharge  their  waters  into  Barataria  bay.  In  the 
ordinary  sense  of  the  term  there  are  no  lakes  in  Louisiana, 
all  that  are  so  called  being  either  estuaries,  bayous  or  expansions 
of  rivers.  Thus  Lake  Pontchartrain  is  a land-locked  estuary 
whose  waters  are  salt  and  rise  and  fall  with  the  tide;  Lake 
Maurepas  is  closely  connected  with  Lake  Pontchartrain,  and 
partakes  of  its  character;  Lake  Borgne  is  only  a sound  or  bay; 
Sabine  lake,  Calcasieu  lake,  Lake  Mermenteau,  Grand  lake. 
Marsh  lake.  Lake  Charles,  Grand  Cheniere,  Caillon,  Lake 
Washa,  and  the  rest  are  all  estuaries  connected  with  rivers  or 
bayous.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  vState  there  are  ten  or 
fifteen  so  called  lakes  which  are  mere  expansions  of  the  Red  river, 
or  some  of  its  tributaries.  There  are  numerous  bays  and  sounds 
along  the  coast,  indenting  the  alluvial  delta  of  the  Mississippi  in 
all  its  borders. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — Three-fifths  of  the  State,  including 
the  Mississippi  basin  and  delta,  the  Red  river  region  and  basin, 
and  the  Bluff  or  Loess  region,  which  comprises  nearly  all  of  Cal- 
casieu, St.  Landry  and  Lafayette  parishes,  and  a long  but  narrow 
strip  east  of  the  Mississippi  river,  belong  to  the  alluvial  and 
diluvial  formations.  The  Mississippi  delta  proper  covers  over 
12,000  square  miles,  and  its  deposits  are  from  thirty  to  forty  feet 
in  depth  and  of  wonderful  fertility.  The  remaining  two-fifths 
of  the  State  is,  for  the  most  part,  tertiary,  the  formations  in  the- 
northwest  and  west-northwest  parts  of  the  State  being  subdivi- 
sions of  the  eocene.  There  are  occasional  small  outcrops  of 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


308 

cretaceous  strata  in  the  northwest,  west  and  central  parts  of  the 
State,  and  in  these  are  found  limestone,  gypsum,  and  salt-bearing 
strata.  Below  the  alluvium  and  tertiary  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  State,  there  are  deposits  of  sulphur,  and  at  one  point 
between  the  Sabine  and  Calcasieu  rivers,  the  boring  of  an  ar- 
tesian well  demonstrates  that,  beginning  428  feet  below  the 
surface,  there  is  a deposit  of  sulphur  112  feet  thick,  which  will 
yield  from  sixty  to  ninety-six  per  cent,  of  pure  sulphur.  Of  other 
minerals  and  metals  Louisiana  has  not  a great  variety.  Brown 
coal  (lignite)  is  found  in  the  tertiary  in  considerable  quantities 
and  of  moderately  good  quality.  Iron  (bog  ore,  probably)  and 
salt  are  plentiful  in  this  region,  and  on  Petit  Anse  island  salt  has 
been  mined  to  a depth  of  sixty  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Gulf, 
fifty-eight  feet  of  it  through  solid  rock-salt  of  the  purest  quality. 
This  was  in  great  demand  during  the  late  civil  war.  In  the 
cretaceous  rocks,  ochre,  marl,  gypsum,  lead,  sulphate  of  soda, 
sulphate  of  iron,  and  a very  pure  carbonate  of  lime  are  found. 
Petroleum  has  also  been  discovered,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  pay  for  working.  Copper  and  quartz  crystals,  agates,  jasper, 
cornelian,  sardonyx,  onyx,  feldspar,  of  fine  quality,  meteoric 
stones  and  numerous  fossils  have  been  found  in  the  tertiary. 

Soil  and  Vegetation. — The  alluvial  and  diluvial  soils  are  of 
extraordinary  and  unsurpassed  fertility.  The  delta  lands  are 
admirably  adapted  for  the  culture  of  sugar-cane,  cotton,  rice, 
wheat,  barley,  sweet  potatoes,  figs  and  oranges.  The  orange 
is  quite  as  successful,  and  of  flavor  fully  equal,  to  those  grown  in 
Florida.  The  Sea  island  or  long  staple  cotton  is  grown  on  the 
islands  of  the  delta,  but  on  the  main  land  the  upland  or  short- 
stapled  cotton  is  most  generally  cultivated.  The  tertiary  region 
has  not  so  rich  a soil,  but  with  proper  culture  yields  good  crops. 
Indian  corn  yields  better  there  than  on  the  alluvial  soils,  and 
cotton  is  successfully  cultivated.  A portion  of  the  tertiary  region 
is  covered  with  pine  forests,  which  are  heavy  but  not  dense,  and 
these  lands,  though  healthful,  are  not  productive.  About  one- 
fifth  of  the  area  of  the  State  is  too  swampy  and  marshy  for  cul- 
tivation, and  much  of  it  is  covered  with  lofty  cypress  trees,  from 
which  the  .Spanish  moss  hangs  in  graceful  festoons.  The  other 


TREES  AND  VEGETATION. 


309 


forest  trees  of  the  alluvial  region  are  the  sv^eet-giim,  ash,  black 
walnut,  hickory,  magnolia,  live-oak,  Spanish,  water,  black,  chest- 
nut, white  and  post  oaks,  tulip-tree  {liriodendrofi),\vc\A^w,  Florida 
anise,  lance-leaved  buck-thorn,  four  or  five  species  of  acacia, 
wild  cherry,  pomegranate,  holly,  arbor-vitae,  tillandsia,  lime,  pecan, 
sycamore,  white  and  red  cedar,  and  yellow  pine;  in  the  tertiary 
lands,  sassafras,  mulberry,  poplar,  hackberry,  red  elm,  maple, 
honey-locust,  black  locust,  dogwood,  tupelo,  box  elder,  prickly 
ash,  persimmon,  etc.  Along  the  river  banks,  the  inevitable  cot- 
tonwood, willow-basket  elm,  palmetto,  wild  cane,  pawpaw,  wild 
orange,  etc.,  are  found.  Of  fruit-trees,  the  peach,  quince,  plum,  fig, 
orange,  pawpaw,  olive  and  pomegranate  are  cultivated  with  great 
success;  the  apple  and  pear  do  not  thrive  so  well.  Local  to- 
pographers classify  the  lands  of  the  State  as  “good  uplands;” 
“pine  hill  lands,”  usually  not  very  fertile;  “alluvial  tracts;” 
“Bluff  or  Loess  regions;”  “marsh  lands;”  “the  prairie  regions;” 
and  “the  pine  flats.”  The  grazing  in  the  uplands  generally  is 
excellent;  in  the  Attakapas  country,  along  the  Atchafalaya  and 
Bayou  Teche,  the  pasturage  is  unsurpassed  in  quality. 

Louisiana  is  a land  of  fragrant  flowers,  and  the  sweet  perfume 
of  its  orange  blossoms,  magnolias,  jessamines,  oleanders,  virgin’s 
bower,  its  innumerable  varieties  of  roses  and  its  thousands  of 
other  sweet-scented  semitropical  and  tropical  flowers,  which  grow 
wild  upon  its  rich  alluvial  lands,  feast  the  senses  with  perpetual 
delight. 

Zoology. — The  wild  animals  of  Louisiana  are  for  the  most  part 
the  same  as  those  of  Texas,  though  there  is  a greater  preponder- 
ance of  reptiles.  The  jaguar  or  American  tiger,  the  most  for- 
midable of  the  North  American  Felidce,  is  found  in  the  cypress 
swamps  in  this  State,  and  in  Texas  and  Arizona.  The  cougar, 
puma,  panther  or  American  lion,  is  also  an  inhabitant  of  the 
swamps,  and  this  wild-cat  and  perhaps  some  of  the  other  Felidcs 
are  also  found.  The  black  and  brown  bear  are  more  common 
in  the  uplands;  while  the  raccoon,  skunk,  opossum,  otter  and 
most  of  the  rodents  are  abundant. 

Alligators  of  great  size  and  ferocity  abound  in  all  the  bayous, 
and  are  destructive  of  cattle  and  sometimes  of  human  beings. 


310 


OUR  ^VE STERN  EMPIRE. 


It  is  believed  that  the  crocodile  exists  in  the  cypress  swamps 
here  as  well  as  in  Florida.  There  are  several  species  of  marine 
turtles  and  land-tortoises  and  terrapins.  The  lizard  tribe  is 
largely  represented;  the  gecko,  chameleon,  lizards  of  all  kinds 
and  sizes,  as  well  as  a great  variety  of  batrachians,  the  horned 
and  common  frog,  many  species  of  toads;  and  of  ophidians,  rat- 
tlesnakes, vipers,  moccasins,  horned  snakes,  and  a great 
variety  of  harmless  serpents  are  common.  There  are  many 
birds  of  prey:  among  them  are  the  bald  and  gray  eagle,  the 
king-vulture,  the  turkey-buzzard  and  other  vultures,  kites,  owls, 
hawks,  gulls,  and,  very  numerous  in  the  bayous  and  in  the  gulfs, 
bays  and  sounds  west  of  the  Mississippi,  the  pelican,  which  has 
been  recognized  as  the  patron  bird  of  the  State,  which  very  gen- 
erally bears  the  name  of  “the  Pelican  State.”  Cranes,  herons, 
ibises,  flamingoes  and  other  waders  are  found  only  in  this  State 
and  Texas  of  “Our  Western  Empire;  ” and  wild  geese,  many 
species  of  wild  ducks,  brant,  teal,  and  some  swans  are  inhabitants 
of  its  lakes,  bayous  and  bays  in  their  season.  The  game  birds, 
wild  turkeys,  pigeons,  partridges  and  several  species  of  grouse 
are  plentiful  in  the  uplands.  Birds  of  gay  plumage,  including 
the  macaw  and  paroquet,  and  many  others,  and  a great  variety 
of  song-birds,  among  which  are  the  mocking-bird,  the  cedar  bird, 
several  of  the  finches  and  tanagers,  a great  variety  of  humming- 
birds, and  orioles  are  abundant  in  the  forests. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  New  Orleans  and  of  the  lower  por- 
tion of  the  delta  is  somewhat  malarious,  and  bilious  and  conges- 
tive fevers,  remittent  and  intermittent,  are  prevalent.  The 
yellow  fever  is  seldom  entirely  absent  from  this  region  in  sum- 
mer, but  becomes  epidemic  only  about  once  in  four  or  five  years. 
Strict  sanitary  supervision  is  maintained,  but  the  drainage  is 
difficult.  By  careful  attention  to  cleanliness  the  city  is  healthier 
than  formerly.  The  yellow  fever  made  fearful  ravages  in  1878, 
and  reap[)eared  in  a milder  form,  in  1879:  later  has  been  generally 
healthy,  d'he  cholera  has  at  times  made  fearful  ravages  here. 
'Phe  water  is  so  near  the  surface  in  New  Orleans  and  most  of 
the  adjacent  region,  that  all  burials  are  made  in  cells  of  vaults, 
built  above  the  surface.  The  climate  of  the  upland  region  is 


A CRICUL  rURAL  PR  OD UCTIONS. 


31  I 

healthy  though  warm,  and  that  of  the  delta  is  so  in  winter.  The 
table  on  next  page,  giving  the  meteorology  of  New  Orleans,  which 
represents  fairly  the  region  of  the  delta  and  of  Shreveport,  in  the 
northwest  of  the  State,  which  shows  that  of  the  upland  country, 
will  exhibit  more  satisfactorily  the  climate  of  the  two  sections 
•than  any  general  description.  Not  only  from  its  climate,  but 
from  the  habits  and  customs  of  its  people,  its  productions,  mar- 
kets, etc.,  Louisiana  will  be  a more  agreeable  region  for  immi- 
grants from  Southern  and  Southwestern  Europe  and  from  the 
Southern  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  than  for  those  from  more  north- 
ern climates.  The  French,  Spanish,  and  Italians,  and  the  Swiss 
and  South  Germans  will  do  better  here  than  the  North  Germans, 
Scandinavians  or  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

mmmsoTA. 

If,  as  is  often  said,  Kansas  is  the  central  State  of  the  United 
States,  and  Colorado  the  central  region  of  “Our  Western  Em- 
pire,” Minnesota  may  fairly  claim  the  higher  honor  of  being  the 
central  State  of  the  North  American  Continent.  Its  boundary 
at  the  north  is  British  America,  Manitoba  abutting  upon  it  at  the 
northwest;  at  the  northeast,  for  about  120  miles.  Lake  Su- 


SURFACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY. 


perior  forms  its  boundary ; on  the  east  it  joins  Wisconsin,  being 
separated  only  by  the  St.  Croix  and  Mississippi  rivers ; on  the 
south  it  is  bounded  by  Iowa,  and  on  the  west  by  Dakota  Ter- 
ritory, with  which  it  shares  the  rich  and  fertile  valley  of  the  Red 
river  of  the  North.  It  is  just  about  equidistant  from  the  capes 
of  the  peninsulas  which  send  off  their  annual  icebergs  into  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  and  the  narrowing  neck  of  land  which,  by  ks  vol- 
canoes, lights  alike  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
from  Newfoundland  on  the  east  and  Vancouver  Island  on  the 
west.  It  lies  between  the  parallels  of  43°  30' and  49°  N.  latitude, 
and  between  the  meridians  of  89°  29'  and  97°  5'  W.  longitude 
from  Greenwich.  The  extreme  length  of  the  State  from  north 
to  south  is  380  miles,  while  its  breadth  varies  from  337  miles, 
about  the  48th  parallel,  to  262  miles  on  the  south  line,  and  183  at 
about  45°  30.'  Its  area  is  estimated  at  the  United  States  Land 
Office  at  83,531  square  miles,  or  53,459,840  acres.  From  this 
area  must  be  deducted  2,900,000  acres  of  water  surface,  lakes, 
etc.  (not  including  that  part  of  Lake  Superior  which  lies  within 
its  limits),  leaving  50,759,840  acres  of  land,  including  the  Indian 
reservations.  This  is  nearly  equal  to  the  combined  areas  of  Ohio 
and  Pennsylvania,  and  a little  more  than  that  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee. 

Surface  of  the  Country. — From  its  location  it  was  inevitable 
that  Minnesota  should  be  the  water-shed  or  divide  for  all  the 
great  streams  which  traverse  the  continent  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  It  has  not,  it  is  true,  anywhere  within  its  area,  any 
range  of  mountains  or  very  high  hills,  but  its  general  elevation 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  except  in  the  river  valleys,  is 
from  1,500  to  1,550  feet  above  the  sea.  Across  this  table-land, 
in  or  near  the  parallel  of  47°  40',  is  a low,  curved  line  of  drift 
hills,  not  much,  if  at  all,  above  100  feet  in  height,  and  extending 
westward  to  the  bluffs  of  the  Red  River  valley,  when  it  turns 
southward,  and  separates  the  waters  of  the  affluents  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi from  those  of  the  Red  river  of  the  North.  In  these  low 
hills  three  great  river  and  lake  systems  have  their  sources,  viz.  : 
the  Mississippi  river  proper  and  its  northern  tributaries ; the  St. 
Louis  river  and  its  numerous  branches^  which  together  form  the 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


head  and  fountain  of  those  waters  which,  through  the  great 
lakes,  find  their  way  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  through  its  broad 
expanse  to  the  northern  Atlantic  Ocean  ; and  the  affluents  of  the 
Red  river  as  well  as  those  of  Rainy  Lake  and  Lake  of  the  Woods, 
all  of 'which  finally  discharge  their  waters  into  Hudson’s  Bay 
and  into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  There  is  but  one  other  point  in 
the  whole  of  our  Western  Empire,  or  for  that  matter,  in  the 
United  States,  where  rivers  flowing  to  such  distant  and  diverse 
points  have  their  sources  so  near  together,  and  that  is  the  point 
near  the  Yellowstone  Park,  where  the  sources  of  the  Missouri, 
the  Columbia,  and  the  Colorado  of  the  West  are  found  within  a 
mile  or  two  of  each  other. 

There  are  then  three  distinct  slopes,  differing  in  soil,  vegetation, 
and  geological  character,  in  the  State.  The  northern  slope,  includ- 
ing not  only  the  Red  river  valley,  but  the  valleys  and  streams  drain- 
ing into  the  Rainy  Lake  chain,  and  into  the  Lake  of  the  Woods ; 
the  eastern  slope,  occupying  the  valley  of  the  St.  Louis  river, 
and  declining  gently  toward  Lake  Superior ; and  the  southern 
slope,  drained  by  the  Mississippi  and  its  affluents,  comprising 
about  two-thirds  of  the  State,  and  extending  into,  and  forming 
part  of,  the  great  Mississippi  valley.  The  descent  from  the  sum- 
mit of  .the  divide,  which  has  an  elevation  in  lat.  47°  45'  to  48°  of 
about  1,680  feet,  to  the  southern  line  of  the  State,  lat.  43°  30',  is 
not  far  from  930  feet ; but  except  in  the  successive  terraces  at 
and  near  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  the  declination  is  very  gradual, 
not  exceeding  two  and  a half  or  three  feet  to  the  mile.  Three- 
fourths  of  the  State  may  be  described  as  generally  rolling  prairie, 
interspersed  with  frequent  groves,  oak  openings,  and  belts  of 
hard-wood  timber,  dotted  with  numberless  small  lakes,  and 
drained  by  numerous  clear  and  limpid  streams.  The  remain- 
ing fourth  includes  the  hills  which  form  the  divide,  the  extensive 
mineral  tract  reaching  to  Lake  Superior,  and  the  heavy  timbered 
region  (“The  Big  Woods”)  lying  around  the  sources  of  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Red  river  of  the  North. 

Rivers,  Lakes,  etc. — The  greater  part  of  the  State,  all  of  it,  in- 
deed, except  two  or  three  of  the  northern,  and  as  yet  unorganized 
counties,  which  are  watered  by  streams  falling  into  the  Rainy 


RIVERS  AND  LANES. 


^ r i 
J ■+ 

Lake  chain — is  drained  by  the  affluents  of  the  St.  Louis,  the 
Mississippi,  and  the  Red  river  of  the  North.  The  St.  Louis  has 
fourteen  or  fifteen  tributaries,  several  of  them  streams  of  con- 
siderable size ; the  Mississippi  has  about  fifty — two  of  them,  the 
St.  Croix  and  the  Minnesota,  being  themselves  large  rivers ; 
only  the  affluents  of  the  Red  river  on  the  eastern  bank  belong 
to  Minnesota,  but  there  are  fourteen  or  more  of  these,  of  which 
the  Red  Grass,  Red  Lake,  Sand  Hill,  Wild  Rice,  and  Buffalo 
rivers  are  considerable  streams. 

The  Rainy  Lake  river  forms  a part  of  the  northern  boundary, 
and  its  affluents,  the  Big  and  Little  Fork,  and  the  Vermilion 
river,  which  flows  into  the  same  chain  of  lakes,  are  streams  of 
moderate  size.  There  are  fifty  or  more  creeks  flowing  into  Lake 
Superior,  which  aid  in  watering  and  fertilizing  this  northeastern 
slope. 

Minnesota  is  emphatically  the  Lake  State.  In  the  surveyed 
area  of  the  State  there  are  upwards  of  7,000  lakes  ; their  average 
extent  is  about  300  acres,  but  a number  of  them  exceed  10,000 
acres,  and  others  are  still  larger;  Lake  Minnetonka  covers  16,000 
acres  ; Lake  Winnebagoshish,  56,000  acres  ; Leech  Lake,  1 14,000 
acres;  Mille  Lacs,  130,000;  Red  Lake,  at  least  350,000,  and 
Lake  of  the  Woods  and  the  Rainy  Lake  Chain,  which  form  part 
of  the  northern  boundary,  are  still  larger.  Not  content  with 
these,  Minnesota  claims  a considerable  slice  of  Lake  Superior  as 
her  property.  Many  of  the  smaller  lakes  are  very  deep,  and  all 
are  well  stocked  with  fish.  Ordinarily  their  shores  are  dry  and 
firm  down  to  the  water’s  edge,  except  at  their  outlets,  and  the 
waters  are  clear,  cool  and  pure.  The  bottoms  are  generally 
sandy  or  pebbly.  The  water  of  Minnesota,  whether  obtained 
from  lake,  spring  or  well,  is  of  excellent  quality.  The  beautiful 
scenery  around  many  of  these  lakes,  and  the  cascades,  rapids  and 
falls  at  the  outlet  of  others,  have  made  them  very  pleasant  re- 
sorts. Among  these  Minnetonka  and  White  Bear  Lakes,  and 
the  Falls  of  Minneopa  and  Minnehaha  have  perhaps  the  widest 
reputation. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — The  greater  part  of  the  State  is 
covered  with  a rich  and  fertile  alluvium,  or,  as  in  the  highlands, 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  ^j5 

by  an  older  and  less  fertile  drift,  which,  however,  sustains  a noble 
forest  growth.  Beneath  this  drift  there  is,  along  the  northern 
shore  of  Lake  Superior,  and  extending  southward  on  both  sides 
of  the  St.  Croix  to  its  junction  with  the  Mississippi,  and  below 
that  point  along  the  eastern  and  western  banks  of  that  river 
below  the  southern  line  of  the  State,  a broad  belt  of  metamorphic 
slates  and  sandstones  intermingled  with  volcanic  rocks,  traps  and 
porphyries ; these  are  of  the  Silurian  epoch,  and  many  dikes  of 
greenstone  and  basalt  are  interjected  in  the  strata.  Occasionally 
deposits  of  marl-drift  and  red  clay  are  found  above  these  rocks. 
This  is  the  principal  mineral  region  of  the  State.  Near  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  State,  or,  rather,  in  the  southeast 
quarter,  between  the  9 2d  and  94th  meridians,  is  a small  tract  of 
Devonian  rocks  ; west  and  northwest  of  the  Silurian  slates  and 
sandstones,  the  underlying  rocks  are  eozoic,  hornblende  and  argil- 
laceous slates,  and  granite,  gneiss  and  metamorphic  rocks.  In  the 
western  and  northwestern  part  of  the  State,  between  the  94th 
and  96th  meridians,  but  not  extending  below  the  46th  parallel, 
and  underlying  the  low  hills  which  form  the  divide  between  the 
affluents  of  the  Mississippi  and  those  of  the  Red  river  of  the 
North,  is  another  belt  of  Silurian  rocks,  upper  Silurian,  in  the 
northern  portion,  and  lower  Silurian,  nearer  the  Mississippi. 
These  are  mostly  limestone,  and  like  those  of  the  same  epoch 
farther  east  are  almost  entirely  devoid  of  fossils.  West  of  these, 
and  forming  the  underlying  strata  of  the  Red  River  valley,  we 
find  a broad  belt  of  cretaceous  rocks,  mostly  of  the  Niagara,  Ga- 
lena and  Trenton  limestones,  with  smaller  outcrops  of  St.  Peter 
and  perhaps  Potsdam  sandstones.  Lastly,  in  the  southwest 
corner  of  the  State,  in  and  near  the  valley  of  the  Big  Sioux,  the 
eozoic  rocks  again  approach  the  surface,  and  some  of  them  are 
mineral-bearing  rocks.  The  Lake  Superior  region  yields,  in  large 
quantity,  iron  of  the  same  character  and  purity  as  that  found  in 
the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan,  and  copper  ores  identical  with 
those  of  Ontonagon ; but  neither  have  been  as  yet  extensively 
worked.  Gold  and  silver  exist  in  moderately  paying  quantities 
near  Vermilion  lake,  in  the  northern  part  of  St.  Louis  county; 
but  the  region  is  yet  so  wild  and  inaccessible  that  the  mines  are 


SOIL  AND  VEGETATION. 


316 

not  now  worked.  Salt  springs  occur  at  various  points  in  the 
State,  and  salt  of  excellent  quality  is  manufactured  in  the  Red 
River  valley,  and  at  Belle  Plaine,  on  the  Minnesota  river. 
Among  the  other  minerals  of  the  State  are  : slates  (both  building 
and  writing),  lime,  white  sand  for  glass-making,  building  stone, 
peat,  marl,  tripoli,  etc.  The  red  pipe  stone,  of  which  the  Indian^ 
made  their  pipes,  is  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  southwest, 
and  is  quarried  and  used  for  many  purposes. 

Soil  and  Vegetation. — The  three  slopes  named  under  the 
heading  of  Surface  of  the  Coimtry  have  each  a different  soil  and 
vegetable  growths.  The  northern,  along  the  Red  River  valley, 
and  the  basins  of  the  lakes  and  rivers  which  form  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  State,  is  a rich  alluvial  deposit  admirably  adapted 
to  the  growth  of  cereals  and  to  grazing.  The  Red  River  valley, 
from  sixty  to  seventy  miles  in  width,  though  but  half  of  it  is  in 
Minnesota,  is  unsurpassed  in  fertility,  and  may  well  become  the 
granary  of  the  world  in  the  production  of  wheat.  While  it  is 
cultivated  more  carelessly  than  it  should  be,  and  averages  only 
about  twenty-two  or  twenty-three  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre, 
it.  is  capable  of  doing  much  better  than  that,  and  instances  are 
not  wanting  on  land,  within  twenty  months  from  its  first  breaking, 
in  which  fifty,  sixty,  eighty,  and  even  one  hundred  and  two  bushels 
of  wheat  to  the  acre  have  been  raised,  and  that  not  on  a single 
acre  only,  by  any  trickery,  but  on  broad  fields  of  sixty  or  eighty 
acres.  This  region  has  forests  of  oak,  beech,  elm  and  maple, 
though  the  greater  part  is  a gently  undulating  prairie.  The 
eastern  slope  has  much  broken  land,  and  is  a better  mineral  than 
agricultural  region  ; though  the  soil  yields  fair  crops,  especially 
of  roots,  much  of  this  slope,  as  well  as  the  highlands  or  divides, 
is  covered  with  a heavy  growth  of  pine,  spruce,  and  other  conif- 
erous trees,  of  great  value  as  lumber,  though  the  soil  beneath 
them,  when  cleared,  is  comparatively  barren.  This  region  occu- 
pies about  twenty-one  thousand  square  miles.  The  southern 
slope,  which  comprises  all  of  the  State  below  the  highlands,  is 
composed  of  alternate  rolling  prairie  and  woodland,  and  has  a 
very  rich  and  fertile  soil.  About  one-third  of  the  surface  of 
Minnesota  is  woodland,  and  her  citizens  have  wisely  taken  meas- 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


317 

ures  to  renew  the  forest  growth,  and  not  suffer  the  land  to  become 
dry  and  sterile  for  the  want  of  forests.  They  have  planted 
already  nearly  thirty  millions  of  trees,  to  replace  those  which 
have  been  cut  off.  By  this  wise  precaution  they  have  secured 
to  their  State  its  forest  supplies,  without  material  diminution.  In 
the  southern  slope  there  are  detached  groves  and  copses  of  great 
beauty  sprinkled  everywhere  among  the  prairies  and  around 
the  numerous  lakes,  while  growths  of  dwarfed  oaks  skirt  the 
prairies  and  are  known  as  oak  openings.  There  is  also  a tract 
on  both  sides  of  the  Minnesota  river,  over  one  hundred  miles  in 
length,  and  of  an  average  width  exceeding  forty  miles,  comprising 
an  area  of  five  thousand  square  miles,  known  as  the  “Big  Woods,” 
which  is  covered  with  a dense  and  magnificent  growth  of  hard- 
wood timber.  This  is  said  to  be  the  largest  forest  of  deciduous 
timber  between  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers.  In  this,  as 
well  as  in  the  smaller  groves,  are  found  almost  every  species  of 
deciduous  trees  native  to  the  States  and  Territories  north  and 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  indigenous  flora  of  the  State  is  a combination  of  the  Can- 
adian, or  sub-alpine,  which  is  found  along  our  northern  frontier, 
with  the  Appalachian  or  Mississippian  of  the  upper  portion  of 
the  Great  Valley.  Owing  to  the  great  number  of  small  lakes, 
streams  and  marshes  in  the  northeast,  the  aquatic  plants  of  the 
sub-alpine  flora  predominate — wild  rice,  reeds,  callas,  and  water- 
loving  plants  generally.  In  the  northeast  part  of  the  State  it  is 
estimated  that  there  are  256,000  acres  of  cranberry  marsh,  which 
yield  abundantly.  Wild  fruits  come  to  great  perfection,  and,  in 
cultivated  fruits,  all  except  the  peach  and  the  later  grapes  are 
produced  of  remarkable  excellence  and  in  great  quantities.  The 
apples,  pears,  plums,  cherries,  early  grapes,  strawberries,  rasp- 
berries, currants,  blackberries,  whortleberries  and  gooseberries 
of  Minnesota  are  not  surpassed  anywhere. 

Zoology, — The  forests  abound  with  wild  animals  and  beasts  of 
prey,  but  these  are  not  as  numerous  in  the  prairie  regions.  The 
bear,  panther  or  cougar,  wild  cat  and  lynx,  and  the  gray  wolf,  as 
well  as  the  marten,  fisher,  otter,  mink,  beaver,  and  muskrat,  skunk, 
raccoon,  fox,  woodchuck,  gopher,  hare  and  squirrel,  and  other 


o I 3 zoo  LOG  F AND  CLIMA  TE  OF  MINNESOTA. 

rodents  are  sufficiently  numerous,  and  the  coyote  or  prairie  wolf 
hunts  in  packs  in  the  open  lands.  Of  the  larger  game  there  are 
the  elk,  two  species  of  deer,  and  possibly  the  moose.  The  buf- 
falo is  rarely  seen,  and  the  antelope,  if  ever  an  inhabitant  of  this 
region,  north  and  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  so  no  longer.  Of 
game  birds,  land  and  aquatic,  there  is  no  end.  Wild  turkeys, 
pigeons,  grouse  of  several  species,  and  partridges,  frequent  the 
woods,  and  wild  geese,  several  species  of  ducks,  brant,  teal,  etc., 
are  found  in  their  season  in  great  numbers,  around  the  hundreds 
of  larger  lakes.  Birds  of  gay  plumage,  and  those  of  melodious 
song,  make  the  woods,  lakes  and  rivers  vocal  with  their  sweet 
notes  or  brilliant  with  their  varied  and  beautiful  hues.  The  rep- 
tile tribes  are  not  so  numerous  as  elsewhere.  There  are  three 
or  four  poisonous,  and  a considerable  number  of  innocuous  ser- 
pents, large  and  small.  The  batrachians  pour  forth  their  music 
in  the  northern  marshes,  but  the  lizard  family  are  missing.  Fish 
abound  in  all  the  waters  of  the  State,  and  the  State  Fish  Com- 
mission, in  co-operation  with  the  United  States  Fish  Commis- 
sion, have  been  stocking  the  larger  lakes  and  streams  with  choice 
species  of  edible  fish.  This  work  is  still  progressing. 

Climate. — A great  deal  has  been  written  about  the  climate  of 
Minnesota,  both  in  its  praise  and  dispraise.  From  its  central 
situation  and  the  curving  northward  of  the  isothermal  lines,  as 
well  as  from  its  very  moderate  elevation,  the  climate  is  undoubt- 
edly milder  than  that  of  States  or  countries  farther  east  in  the 
same  latitude.  The  mean  average  temperature  of  the  State 
has  been  given  as  44.6°  Fahrenheit.  This  is  not  yet  true, 
though  it  may  become  so  in  a few  years.  Its  present  average 
annual  mean,  from  observations  made  at  many  different  points 
for  from  eight  to  twelve  years  past,  does  not  exceed  42.9°  Fah- 
renheit, and  this  is  a very  decided  advance  from  the  mean  of 
eight  or  ten  years  since.  As  the  country  is  settled,  the  annual 
temperature  rises,  and  though  there  may  be  occasional  severe 
winters  like  those  of  1877-78,  and  of  1879-80,  when  the  temper- 
ature sinks  to — 53°,  or — 60°,  yet  it  is  gradually  advancing  to  a 
milder  temperature.  The  air  is  very  dry  and  bracing;  the  rain- 
fall is  not  as  great  as  it  is  farther  east,  and  probably  averages. 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


319 


one  year  with  another  for  the  whole  State,  about  27.5  inches; 
but  it  is  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  Minnesota  and  Dakota,  that 
three-fourths  of  it  falls  between  April  and  October,  and  more 
than  one-half  between  the  ist  of  May  and  the  15th  of  August — 
the  season  when  the  growing  crops  most  require  it.  The  sum- 
mer is  hot,  and  everything  (including  weeds)  grows  with  the 
greatest  rapidity.  When  the  harvest  is  gathered,  winter  comes, 
sometimes  with  abundant  snows,  but  oftener  without  them;  and 
the  frost-king  reigns  from  November  to  April,  but  the  dryness 
of  the  air  renders  the  intense  cold  more  endurable,  and  the 
winter  is  a season  of  activity.  The  climate  is  healthful,  the 
death-rate  low,  and  malarious  diseases  unknown.  The  climate 
is  regarded  as  a desirable  one  for  consumptives  from  its  dry 
and  bracing  air.  It  is  certain  that  many  of  those  who  come  to 
the  State  with  weak  lungs,  when  the  disease  is  not  too  far  ad- 
vanced, do  recover  and  enjoy  good  health.  The  table  on  page 
909  prepared  with  great  care  and  labor,  gives  all  the  necessary 
particulars  for  determining  the  climate  of  all  parts  of  the  State. 
The  temperature,  rainfall,  humidity,  etc.,  are  averages  from  ob- 
servations continued  for  from  five  to  ten  years,  and  are  more 
satisfactory  than  any  statement  of  the  temperature,  rainfall,  etc., 
of  a single  year,  which  may  be  exceptional  in  its  character. 

Railroads  and  Steam  Navigation. — There  are  none  of  the 
Western  States  which  have  made  more  rapid  progress  in  railroad 
construction  than  Minnesota,  and  none  which  possess  greater 
facilities  for  travel  and  transportation.  Let  us  begin  with  the 
navigable  waters.  The  Mississippi,  interrupted  only  by  the 
Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  Sauk  rapids,  and  Little  Falls,  is  navigable 
to  the  foot  of  Pokegama  Falls,  distant  but  236  miles  from  its 
source. 

History. — Father  Hennepin,  a Franciscan  priest,  was  the  firsv 
European  who  is  known  to  have  visited  Minnesota.  In  1680  he 
ascended  the  Mississippi  with  a party  of  fur  traders  to  the  F'alls 
of  St.  Anthony,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  which  they  still  bear. 
Some  French  traders  and  their  descendants  settled  around  the 
falls,  but  they  soon  lapsed  into  Indian  customs  and  modes  of  life. 
In  1763  the  country  subsequently  known  as  the  Northwest  Ter- 


320 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


ritory  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain.  In  1766  Jonathan  Carver,  a 
native  of  Connecticut,  explored  that  part  of  Minnesota  extending 
from  the  present  southern  border  to  the  sources  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. In  1783  it  was  transferred  to  the  United  States  as  a part 
of  the  Northwest  Territory.  In  1805  a tract  of  land  was  pur- 
chased from,  the  Indians  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Croix  river,  in- 
cluding the  present  site  of  Hastings,  and  another  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Minnesota  river,  which  includes  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony. 
In  1820  Fort  Snelling  was  built,  and  in  1822  a small  grist  mill 
was  erected  on  the  present  site  of  Minneapolis  for  the  use  of  the 
garrison  at  Fort  Snelling.  In  1823  the  first  steamboat  visited 
Minnesota.  Between  1823  and  1830  a small  colony  of  Swiss 
settled  near  St.  Paul.  The  Indian  title  to  lands  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi was  extinguished  in  1838.  In  1843  a settlement  was 
commenced  at  Stillwater,  on  the  St.  Croix.  The  Act  of  Congress 
establishing  the  Territory  of  Minnesota  was  passed  March  3, 
1849,  and  the  Territory  was  organized  in  the  following  June.  It 
extended  to  the  Missouri  river,  and  thus  included  nearly  all  of 
Eastern  Dakota.  Its  population  was  then  between  4,000  and 
5,000.  In  1851  the  Indian  title  to  the  lands  lying  between  the 
Mississippi  river  and  the  Red  river  of  the  North,  except  the  res- 
ervations, was  extinguished.  Immigration  at  once  commenced, 
though  considerably  hindered  by  the  very  general  impression 
that  the  region  was  too  cold  to  produce  any  crops.  Gov- 
ernor Ramsey,  the  first  Territorial  Governor,  now  United 
States  Secretary  of  War,  says  that  when  he  came  to  Wash- 
ington, and  brought  with  him  some  ears  of  corn  and  wheat 
raised  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Paul,  he  was  accused  of  trying 
to  deceive,  for  it  was  said  that  it  was  impossible  that  anything 
should  grow  in  such  an  Arctic  climate.  But  the  Territory 
grew,  and  in  1857  had  about  150,000  inhabitants;  and  on  the 
26th  of  PTbruary  in  that  year.  Congress  passed  an  enabling  act, 
providing  for  its  admission  as  a State.  It  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  May.  ii,  1858.  In  i860  it  had  a population  of  172,023. 
General  H.  H.  Sibley,  one  of  its  pioneer  settlers,  was  its  first 
State  Governor,  and  was  succeeded  in  i860  by  Governor  Ram- 
sey. In  1862  occurred  the  Sioux  massacre,  to  which  we  have 


HIS  I'ORICA  L NO  TES. 


321 


already  alluded.  Nearly  a thousand  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
State  were  subjected  to  the  most  cruel  outrages  and  butchered 
in  cold  blood.  It  seemed  at  first  that  this  would  paralyze  the 
young  State,  and  prevent  its  growth  for  a long  time.  But  it  had 
just  the  contrary  effect.  The  summary  and  terrible  punishment 
inflicted  on  the  Sioux  for  their  atrocious  crimes  and  their  prompt 
ejectment  from  the  State,  encouraged  immigration,  and  in  the 
eighteen  years  which  have  since  elapsed,  the  State  has  grown 
with  wonderful  rapidity.  The  railroad  controversy,  involving 
the  power  of  the  State  to  limit  and  reduce  the  charges  for  freight, 
to  which  all  the  States  of  the  Northwest  were  in  a greater 
or  less  degree  participants,  was  less  severe  or  protracted  in 
Minnesota  than  in  some  of  the  other  States,  and  was  amicably 
settled.  In  the  extent  and  fertility  of  her  soil ; in  the  cheapness 
of  choice  lands,  whether  purchased  from  the  United  States,  the 
State  or  the  railways ; in  the  accessibility  of  every  settled  county 
of  the  State  to  the  best  markets,  thereby  securing  high  prices  for 
her  products  ; in  her  abundant  water  and  all  the  facilities  for  suc- 
cessful manufacturing ; in  the  excellence  of  her  educational 
system  and  its  expansion  over  the  whole  State,  and  in  the  moral 
and  religious  character  of  its  inhabitants,  the  immigrant  will  find 
Minnesota,  as  a home  for  himself  and  his  children,  lansurpassed 
by  any  State  or  Territory  in  “Our  Western  Empire.” 


322 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
MISSOURI. 


Missouri  is  one  of  the  central  belt  of  the  States  of  “ Our 
Western  Empire,”  having  the  Mississippi  for  its  eastern  bound- 
ary, and  the  Missouri  in  part  for  its  western.  It  extends  (includ- 
ing a small  tract  lying  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  St.  Francis 
rivers)  from  the  parallel  of  36°  to  that  of  40°  30'  north  latitude, 
and  from  the  meridian  of  89°  2'  to  that  of  95°  44'  west  longitude 
from  Greenwich.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is  about 
309  miles ; its  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west  3 1 8 miles,  and  its 
average  breadth  about  244  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Iowa,  the  parallel  of  40°  30'  forming  the  dividing  line  from  the 
Missouri  river  to  the  Des  Moines,  and  thence  down  the  channel 
of  that  river  to  the  Mississippi ; on  the  east  it  is  bounded  by  the 
Mississippi  river,  which  separates  it  from  Illinois,  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  ; south  by  Arkansas,  on  the  line  of  36°  from  the  Mis- 
sissippi to  the  St.  Francis  river  and  from  the  St.  Francis  to  the 
meridian  of  94°  38',  the  parallel  of  36°  30';  on  the  west  by  the 
Indian  Territory,  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  following  the  meridian 
of  94°  38',  from  the  Arkansas  line  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kansas 
river,  and  from  that  point  to  the  parallel  of  40°  30',  the  channel 
of  the  Missouri  river.  Its  area  is  65,370  square  miles,  or  41,- 
836,931  acres,  the  whole  of  which  has  been  surveyed. 

Face  of  the  Country. — The  State  is  divided  into  two  unequal 
portions  by  the  Missouri  river,  which  crosses  it  from  west  to 
east,  and  also  forms  its  northwestern  boundary.  The  portion 
south  of  the  Missouri,  which  forms  about  two-thirds  of  the  terri- 
tory of  the  State,  has  a very  varied  surface.  In  the  southeast, 
the  region  lying  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  St.  Francis 
rivers,  as  far  north  as  near  the  parallel  of  Cape  Girardeau,  is 
very  low  and  swampy  and  subject  to  frequent  overflow  by  the 
Mississippi  and  its  tributaries.  This  comprises  all  the  land  lying 
opposite  to  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  and  most  of  Alexander  county. 


FAC£  OF  THE  COUNTRY. 


323 


Illinois.  Above  this,  a little  below  Cape  Girardeau,  the  highland 
bluffs  commence,  and  extend  up  to  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri. 
Between  St.  Genevieve  and  the  mouth  of  the  Meramec  these 
bluffs,  which  are  solid  masses  of  limestone,  rise  from  250  to  360 
feet  above  the  river,  and  extend  westward  across  the  State,  but 
are  less  precipitous  and  rugged  as  they  approach  the  Osage 
river.  In  the  south  and  southwestern  portion  of  the  State,  the 
Ozark  mountains,  or,  rather,  hills,  occupy  a considerable  portion 
of  the  country;  they  form  no  continuous  or  systematic  ranges, 
but  render  the  whole  region  exceedingly  broken  and  hilly,  the 
isolated  peaks  and  rounded  summits  (buttes  they  would  be  called 
farther  west)  sometimes  rising  from  500  to  1,000  feet  above  their 
bases,  and  then  sinking  into  very  beautiful  and  often  very  fertile 
valleys.  Though  not  distinctly  defined,  the  general  course  of 
this  hilly  region  is  slightly  north  of  east  from  the  southeastern 
border  of  Kansas,  where  it  enters  the  State  to  the  Mississippi 
river.  Beginning  as  a broad  arable  plateau,  it  slopes  gently  to 
the  water  courses  on  either  side,  and  with  fine  farming  lands  even 
on  its  highest  levels.  For  one-third  of  the  distance  across  the 

o 

State  it  possesses  no  characteristic  of  a mountain  range,  and 
from  thence  as  it  extends  eastwardly  its  ridges  become  gradually 
more  irregular  and  precipitous,  until  near  the  centre  of  the  range 
they  begin  to  break  up  into  a series  of  knobs  and  hills,  which 
finally  attain  their  highest  elevation  at  Iron  Mountain  and  Pilot 
Knob,  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  State.  The  numerous  river 
bottoms  formed  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Osage  and  Missouri 
rivers  are  generally  fertile,  but  most  of  them  are  subject  to  over- 
flow. Farther  north,  in  the  basin  of  the  Osage  and  above  it,  the 
land  is  mostly  rolling  prairie  with  occasional  forests ; the  imme- 
diate valley  of  the  Missouri  is  a rich  alluvial  valley  of  great 
fertility,  and  abounding  in  forest  trees  of  magnificent  size  and 
circumference. 

North  of  the  Missouri  the  country  is  generally  either  rolling 
or  level  prairie,  though  with  considerable  tracts  of  timber;  it  forms 
a part  of  that  great  bed  of  the  prehistoric  lake  more  than  500 
miles  from  shore  to  shore,  through  which  the  Missouri  formerly 
flowed,  and  which  included  the  greater  part  of  Iowa  and  Eastern 
59 


324 


OUR  WESJ'ERN  EMPIRE. 


Nebraska,  and  its  surface  soils,  for  many  feet  in  depth,  are  com- 
posed of  loess  or  silty  deposits ; the  tributaries  of  both  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  Missouri  have  worn  deep  channels  through  the  rocks, 
and  the  valleys  of  erosion  thus  made,  as  well  as  the  surface  and 
soil  of  this  entire  region  north  of  the  Missouri,  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  Iowa.  The  river  bottoms  are  exceedingly  rich  and 
productive. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — The  Mississippi  river  forms  the  entire  east- 
ern boundary  of  the  State,  for  a distance  of  540  miles.  The 
Missouri  river  flows  along  its  western  boundary,  separating  it 
from  the  States  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  for  a distance  of  250 
miles,  and  then  flows  eastwardly  entirely  across  the  State,  until  it 
joins  the  Mississippi  upon  the  eastern  boundary,  twenty  miles 
above  St.  Louis,  a distance  of  450  miles  ; thus  giving  the  State  a 
shore  line  upon  these  two  great  inland  arteries  of  commerce  of 
upwards  of  1,550  miles.  The  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  on 
its  west  bank  in  this  State  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  Mis- 
souri, mostly  small  and  of  no  great  importance.  The  St.  Francis 
and  its  largest  tributary,  the  Little  river,  as  well  as  the  White  with 
its  numerous  branches,  forks,  and  its  tributaries,  the  Black,  Current, 
Paint  and  Spring  rivers,  all  belong  to  Arkansas,  and  enter  the  Mis- 
sissippi in  that  State.  The  Meramec  and  its  principal  tributary,  the 
Big  river,  is  the  only  considerable  affluent  of  the  Mississippi  in  the 
State  south  of  the  Missouri.  North  of  that  river.  Salt  river  is  the 
largest  affluent,  but  the  Cuivre  or  Copper  river.  North  river. 
South,  Middle  and  North  Fabius,  Wyaconda  and  Fox  rivers,  are 
streams  of  considerable  size.  The  Missouri  receives  numerous 
large  affluents  in  the  State.  On  the  south  side  are  the  Famine 
river,  the  Osage  (a  large  and  beautiful  stream),  with  its  tributa- 
ries, the  Little  Osage,  Marmiton,  Sac  river.  Grand  river,  Pomme 
de  Terre,  Big  and  Little  Niangua,  Auglaize,  and  Marie’s  creek; 
and  Gasconade  river,  with  its  Osage,  Lick  and  Piney  Forks.  On 
the  north  side  there  are  the  Nishnabatona,  the  Big  and  Little 
Tarkio,  Nodaway,  Platte,  Grand  (with  fourteen  considerable  trib- 
utaries), Chariton  (with  seven  or  eight),  Rocher  Perche,  Cedar, 
Muddy  and  L’Outre  creeks.  In  the  southwest  the  Neosho,  an 
affluent  of  the  Arkansas,  with  its  tributaries,  drains  six  or  eight 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERAL  OGY.  326 

counties.  Wherever  the  Great  American  Desert  may  be,  it  is 
certain  that  no  part  of  it  is  in  a State  whose  every  county  is  so 
abundantly  watered  by  large  and  small  streams  as  Missouri. 
There  are  comparatively  few  lakes  in  the  State.  In  the  southeast 
there  are  extensive  swamps,  overflowed  at  seasons  of  high  water 
like  those  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  In  St.  Charles  county,  between 
the  Missouri  and  the  Mississippi,  there  are  a number  of  small 
lakes.  In  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State,  in  Platte,  Buchanan 
and  Holt  counties,  there  are  several  lakes  of  considerable  size. 
The  Missouri,  as  well  as  the  Mississippi,  at  times  widens  into  a 
wide  expanse  of  water  dotted  with  islands. 

Geology  and  Mmeralogy — The  geology  of  Missouri  maybe 
briefly  summed  up  as  follows  : i.  Quaternary  (alluvium,  bluff,  and 
drift  or  loess)  deposits,  found  in  greater  or  less  degree  all  over  the 
State,  but  especially  deep  and  thick  in  the  southeastern  counties, 
Ripley,  Butler,  Dunklin,  Pemiscot,  New  Madrid,  Mississippi, 
Scott,  Stoddard,  and  portions  of  Carter,  Wayne  and  Bollinger, 
as  well  as  through  the  immediate  valley  or  bottom  lands  of  the 
Missouri,  to  the  point  in  the  northwest  at  which  it  enters  the 
State.  There  are  no  tertiary,  cretaceous,  triassic  or  Jurassic 
groups  in  the  State,  but  we  come  below  the  quaternary  immedi- 
ately upon — 2.  The  upper  carboniferous,  which  with — 3.  The 
lower  carboniferous,  covers  23,000  square  miles  of  the  State. 
There  are  in  these  two  formations,  the  upper,  middle  and  lower 
coal,  and  the  Clear  creek  sandstone  of  the  upper  carboniferous, 
and  six  successive  deposits  of  the  lower  carboniferous,  com- 
prising an  unclassified  sandstone,  and  the  St.  Louis,  Keokuk  and 
Chouteau  groups  of  limestones  and  sandstones,  most  of  them 
rich  in  fossils.  This  great  coal  field  occupies  in  general  the 
western,  northwestern  and  northern  portions  of  the  State. 

Next  in  order,  and  for  the  most  part  immediately  adjacent  to 
the  coal  measures,  are — 4.  Three  considerable  tracts  of  Devonian 
rocks,  one  in  the  southwest,  another  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  State,  and  the  third  a narrow  belt  which  follows  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  carboniferous  deposits  in  all  their  devious  lines,  and 
extends  southeast  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  St.  Louis.  The 
only  strictly  Devonian  rocks  in  the  State  are  the  Hamilton  and 
Onondaga  groups,  both  mainly  limestones. 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


326 

5.  The  upper  and  lower  Silurian  formations  come  next  in 
order ; they  occupy  a tract  almost  200  miles  in  width,  and  ex- 
tending from  the  Missouri  river  to  the  southern  line  of  the  State, 
and  also  crop  out  in  the  immediate  bottom  lands  of  the  Missis- 
sippi above  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri.  The  groups  of  the  upper 
Silurian  found  here  are  Oriskany  sandstone,  lower  Helderberg  or 
Delthyris  shale,  Niagara  group,  and  Cape  Girardeau  limestone. 
Of  the  lower  Silurian  formation  there  are  three  groups  belonging 
to  the  Trenton  period,  viz. : The  Cincinnati,  Galena  and  Trenton 
groups,  composed  mainly  of  shales  and  limestones ; and  three 
groups  of  the  magnesian  limestone  series,  consisting  of  mag- 
nesian limestones,  saccharoidal  and  other  sandstones,  and  Pots- 
dam limestones,  sandstones  and  conglomerates. 

6.  Below  these,  around  the  head  waters  of  the  affluents  of  the 
St.  Francis  and  White  rivers,  there  are  frequent  outcrops  of  eozoic 
or  archaic  rocks — greenstone,  porphyry  and  granite.  Much  of 
the  limestone  of  the  coal  measures,  as  well  as  some  of  the  other 
formations,  is  cavernous,  and  there  are  numerous  caves  of  great 
extent  and  beauty  in  the  central  and  western  portions  of  the 
State. 

Missouri  has  a great  variety  of  minerals,  and  in  those  of 
greatest  economic  value  is  hardly  surpassed  by  any  State  or 
Territory  of  “Our  Western  Empire.”  Gold  has  thus  far  been 
discovered  only  in  the  drift  in  Northern  Missouri  in  placers  over- 
lying  the  coal  measures,  and  therefore  without  hope  of  veins  or 
lodes ; these  placers  are,  as  they  are  situated,  too  lean  for  profit- 
able working,  yielding  only  from  thirteen  cents  to  ^2.51  per  ton. 
Silver  has  been  diligently  sought  in  the  lead  ores  which  abound 
in  the  State,  but  they  are  not,  to  any  profitable  extent,  silver- 
bearing. In  August,  1879,  argentiferous  galena  was  discovered 
in  the  eozoic  rocks  in  Madison  county,  one  of  the  eastern  coun- 
ties of  the  State,  about  twelve  miles  east  of  Ironton,  and  perhaps 
fifteen  miles  southeast  of  Pilot  Knob.  What  is  the  value  of  these 
lodes  is  not  stated,  but  they  are  sufficiently  rich  to  have  drawn 
about  twenty  companies  there,  who  are  now  at  work,  and  are 
very  sanguine  that  these  lodes  also  contain  gold  and  platinum. 
The  first  attempts  to  reduce  the  ores  were  made  by  the  wet 
amalgamation  process,  and  not  by  smelting. 


METALS  AA^D  METALLIC  ORES. 


327 

But  if  the  precious  metals  (so  called)  have  not  hitherto  yielded 
much  wealth  to  Missouri,  her  mines  of  lead,  copper,  zinc,  and, 
above  all,  of  coal  and  iron,  have  made  ample  amends  for  any 
lack  of  the  others.  Iron  is  found  in  some  form  in  every  county 
in  the  State — bog  ores  in  Southeastern  Missouri;  limonite,  or 
brown  haematite,  in  most  of  the  southern  counties:  goethite,  a va- 
riety of  the  brown  haematite  in  Adair  county ; red  haematite 
throughout  the  coal  measures ; red  and  yellow  ochres  in  many 
counties  ; spathic  ores  in  the  coal  measures  and  in  Phelps  county  ; 
the  specular  oxide,  in  vast  masses,  such  as  the  Iron  mountain. 
Shepherd  mountain,  Pilot  Knob,  Simmon  mountain.  Iron  ridge, 
the  Meramec  mines,  in  Phelps  county,  and  numerous  other  de- 
posits in  eight  or  ten  other  counties;  sulphurets  (iron  pyrites) 
throughout  the  coal  measures,  and  sulphate  of  iron  (copperas)  in 
the  coal  measures  and  abandoned  coal  mines.  Some  States  and 
Territories  have  perhaps  an  equal  abundance  of  iron  ores,  but 
lack  smelting  coals  to  reduce  them  ; but  Missouri  has  an  abun- 
dance of  excellent  smelting  coals  and  fluxes  in  close  proximity 
to  her  beds  of  iron  ores. 

After  iron,  lead  is  the  metal  most  largely  produced  in  Mis- 
souri, her  product  of  that  metal  being  greater  than  that  of  all  the 
rest  of  the  United  States.  Our  latest  complete  statistics  of  the 
lead  produced  in  the  State  are  for  1879,  when  the  St.  Louis  Mer- 
chants’ Exchange  reported  a production  of  56,868,960  pounds. 
This  was  a very  decided  falling  off  from  the  product  of  1878, 
which  was  60,348,560  pounds,  and  still  more  from  that  of  1877, 
which  was  63,202,240  pounds.  About  one-third  of  the  whole 
was  exported.  The  consumption  as  well  as  the  production  of 
lead  has  largely  increased  within  the  past  five  years,  and  while 
Colorado,  Montana,  Utah,  Nevada  and  California  are  sending 
into  market  large  amounts  of  lead  parted  from  silver,  and  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona  are  preparing  to  do  the  same,  the  produc- 
tion in  Missouri,  Iowa  and  Kansas  has  also  increased  and  kept 
pace  with  them.  There  are  two  great  lead  fields — one  in  South- 
eastern and  the  other  in  Southwestern  Missouri.  It  is  also 
found  in  smaller  quantities  in  many  counties  outside  of  these  lead 
fields ; galena,  or  sulphuret  of  lead,  and  cerussite,  or  the  carbon- 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


328 

ate,  are  the  principal  ores,  though  some  deposits  of  the  phosphate 
(pyromorphite)  are  found.  Zinc  in  the  form  of  blende  is  abun- 
dant in  the  same  regions  as  the  lead — in  Southeastern  and  South- 
western Missouri,  and  the  silicates  and  carbonates,  also,  while 
zinc  bloom  sometimes  occurs.  The  production  of  zinc  in  Missouri 
is  about  one-third  of  that  in  the  entire  United  States,  and  is  ex- 
ceeded only  by  that  of  Illinois.  Copper  in  the  form  of  blue  and 
green  carbonates  (malachite)  and -sulphurets,  is  found  in  large 
quantities  in  Shannon,  Crawford,  Jefferson,  Franklin  and  Madison 
counties,  and  in  smaller  quantities  in  a dozen  other  counties. 
For  many  years  copper  mining  was  successfully  carried  on  in  the 
State,  and  even  now  small  quantities  are  produced  ; but  the  yield 
of  copper  in  the  ores  ranges  only  from  twenty-two  to  twenty-six 
per  cent.,  and  the  Lake  Superior  ores  are  so  much  richer,  and 
their  mines  contain  so  much  native  copper  as  to  render  the  busi- 
ness generally  unprofitable.  The  sulphate  of  cadmium  (greenock- 
ite)  is  associated  with  the  zinc  blende  in  many  of  the  mines. 
Nickel  and  cobalt  are  found  in  paying  quantities  at  Mine  La 
Motte,  in  Madison  county,  and  in  the  St.  Joseph  mines,  and  the 
beautiful  hair-like  crystals  of  sulphuret  of  nickel  (Millerite)  in  the 
vicinity  of  St.  Louis.  Wolfram  occurs  in  Madison  county,  and 
manganese  and  manganiferous  iron  in  Iron  and  other  counties. 

Of  minerals,  not  ores,  there  is  a great  variety ; carbonate  of 
lime  (calcite),  arragonite,  pearl  spar,  fluor  spar,  quartz  in  all 
forms;  heavy  spar  (sulphate  of  baryta),  mainly  used  in  the  adul- 
teration of  white  lead;  gypsum,  mainly  in  the  form  of  selenite; 
pickeringite,  feldspar,  mica,  hornblende,  asbestos,  bitumen  or  min- 
eral tar  (throughout  the  coal  measures),  fire-clay,  potter’s  clay 
and  kaolin  ; an  excellent  glass  sand  from  the  saccharoidal  lime- 
stone ; lime  of  several  qualities  ; hydraulic  lime  and  cement;  pol- 
ishing stone,  saltpetre,  building  stones  of  granite,  sandstones, 
limestones  and  marbles,  grindstones,  millstones,  slates,  and  numer- 
ous fine  varieties  of  colored  marbles  are  the  principal  of  these. 
But  of  all  the  minerals  not  metallic,  coal  is  the  most  important  in 
Missouri.  The  coal  fields  underlie  an  area  of  about  26,000  square 
miles  in  the  State.  The  coal  includes  deposits  belonging  to  the 
upper,  middle  and  lower  coal  measures,  and  is  of  various  quali- 


ZOOLOGY  AND  CL/A/A  TE. 


329 


ties,  some  being  common  bituminous,  some  very  rich  in  carbon, 
and  developing  excellent  results  under  the  coking  process,  while 
some  will  not  coke;  some  is  equal  in  quality  to  the  Liverpool 
cannel  coal.  The  percentage  of  fixed  carbon  varies  from  thirty 
to  sixty  per  cent.,  the  average  being  not  far  from  fifty  per  cent. 
Among  the  coal  beds  already  worked  are  many  which  produce 
excellent  smelting  coals,  though  perhaps  a larger  number  yield 
a coal  better  adapted  to  the  use  of  locomotives  and  stationary 
engines.  The  coal  mines  are  usually  easily  worked,  and  do  not 
require  deep  shafts  or  expensive  machinery,  and  coal  is  very 
cheap.  There  are  many  mineral  springs  in  the  State,  sulphurous, 
saline  and  chalybeate,  but  none  of  national  reputation.  There 
are  also  brine  springs  in  Howard  county,  which  yield  from  two 
to  three  ounces  of  very  pure  salt  to  the  gallon. 

Zoology. — Having  extensive  forests,  Missouri  has  an  abun- 
dance of  wild  animals.  They  are  mostly  those  of  the  Mississippi 
valley  and  of  the  plains.  Bears  (the  black  and  cinnamon),  cou- 
gars or  panthers,  wild  cats,  lynxes,  wolves,  both  the  gray  wolf  and 
the  coyote,  foxes,  raccoons,  opossums,  skunks,  beavers,  martens, 
minks,  muskrats,  gophers,  woodchucks,  and  nearly  all  the  ro- 
dents and  burrowing  animals.  The  buffalo  and  the  elk  have 
disappeared  from  Missouri,  though  they  were  formerly  abundant 
there  ; but  there  are  two  species  of  deer,  antelopes  (rare),  rabbits 
and  hares.  Wild  turkeys,  quails,  pigeons,  partridges,  prairie 
hens  (though  these  are  not  as  numerous  as  formerly),  and  other 
grouse  exist  in  greafabtindance.  The  birds  of  prey,  eagles,  vul- 
tures, hawks,  owls,  etc.,  destroy  great  numbers  of  game  birds  and 
rodents ; wild  geese,  ducks,  brant,  teal  and  snipe  are  found  in 
their  season  on  the  rivers  and  in  the  marshes,  and  with  them 
herons,  swans,  divers,  and  more  rarely  ibises.  Snakes,  lizards, 
frogs,  toads,  turtles,  etc.,  are  numerous. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Missouri  is  generally  healthy,  except 
in  the  river  bottoms  and  the  marshy  districts  of  the  southeast ; 
but  it  is  a climate  of  frequent  changes  and  of  great  extremes. 
The  months  of  July  and  August  are  marked  by  extreme  heat,  and 
there  are  periods  of  equally  intense  cold  in  January  and  Feb- 
ruary. The  autumn  and  spring  are  very  mild  and  pleasant, 
though  with  occasional  days  of  int^mse  cold  or  heat. 


330 


METEOROLOGY  OF  MISSOURI. 


We  give  below  the  following  additional  items  in  regard  to  the  meteorology 
of  St.  Louis,  taken  from  the  Signal  Service  Reports. 


1 

j Months 

1878. 

Monthly  and  annual 
mean  actual  pres- 
sure of  barometer, 
corrected  for  tem- 
perature, etc. 

' ■ . _ 

Monthly  and  annual 

mean  relative 

humidity. 

i 

Monthly  and  annual 

Rainfall. 

Prevalent  winds  and  their  direction 
each  month. 

January 

Inches. 

29.462 

Per  cent. 
66.4 

1 

Inches. 

2.36 

N.  W.,  S.,  W.,  N.,  E. 

February 

29.361 

65.2 

1.69 

N.,  S.,  N.  W.,  N.  E.,S.  E. 

March 

29*353 

56.6 

2.79 

S.,  N.  W..  S.  E.,  W.,  N. 

April 

29. 201 

55-5 

6.74 

S.  E.,N.,N.  W.,S.,S.  W. 

May 

29.362 

63.1 

4-63 

S.,N.  W.,N.,S.  E.,N.  E. 

June 

29.366 

60.8 

2.40 

S.,N.,S.E.,N.W.,W.,N.E. 

July 

29.398 

62.9 

3-92 

S.,  N.,  N.  E.,  E.,  S.  W. 

August 

29.372 

64.2 

4-75 

S.,  N.,  S.  W.,  N.  W.,  N.E. 

September  ... 

29-503 

59-9 

3-42  • 

S.,  N.,  S.  E.,  E.,  N.  W. 

October 

29-475 

60.6 

3-27 

S.,  N.,  N.  W.,  W. 

November — 

29.467 

61.7 

1.38 

S.,N.W.,W.,N.,S.E.,N.E. 

December  — ' 

29.562 

74.0 

3.48  ! 

W.,  N.  W.,S.E.,N.,S.,E. 

Year , 

29.476 

62.6 

40.83 

S.,N.W.,N.,S.E.,W.,N.E.,E. 

According  to  a well-known  authority,  Dr.  Engleman,  of  St. 
Louis,  the  mean  annual  temperature  on  a line  passing  across  the 
State  from  east  to  west,  not  far  from  its  northern  border,  is  50° 
Fahrenheit ; a little  south  of  the  middle,  including  St.  Louis, 
53°  Fahrenheit;  at  about  middle,  including  St.  Louis,  summer 
mean  75°  Fahrenheit ; somewhat  north  of  southern  border, 
also  including  St.  Louis,  winter  mean  32°  Fahrenheit.  The 
Doctor  states  that  the  climate  on  the  whole  is  dry  and  rarely 
overloaded  with  moisture,  and  that  it  yields  an  unusual  amount 
of  fair  weather. 

Such  meteorological  conditions  are  highly  conducive  to  health, 
since  they  admit  of  and  encourage  active  out-door  life  at  all 
seasons.  Missouri  presents  such  a diversity  of  surface  that  all 
can  find  localities  within  its  boundaries  suitable  to  their  peculiari- 
ties of  constitution.  The  Signal  Service  Reports  do  not  vary 
greatly  from  Dr.  Engleman’s  meteorological  estimates,  but  they 
exhibit  one  feature  which  he  does  not  particularly  notice,  viz. : 
the  great  range  of  the  thermometer  in  the  winter,  spring  and 
autumn  months.  The  annual  range  is  about  93°  ; the  range  of 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


331 


the  spring  months  averages  80° ; of  the  summer,  about  45°  ; of 
the  autumn,  about  65°  ; and  of  the  winter,  a little  more  than  70^. 

The  average  rainfall  all  over  the  State  is  40.5  inches,  and  con- 
trary to  the  popular  belief  is  greater  in  the  western  than  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  State,  being  46.16  at  St.  Joseph,  and  only 
37.83  in  the  same  years  at  Jefferson  Barracks,  on  the  Mississippi. 

Soil  and  Vegetation. — The  Hon.  Andrew  McKinley,  President 
of  the  Missouri  State  Board  of  Immigration,  a man  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  soils  and  productive  capacity  of  the  Missouri 
lands,  thus  classifies  and  describes  them : 

“ When  the  territory  now  embraced  within  the  boundaries  of 
Missouri  emerged  from  the  waters  that  covered  it,  the  marls  of 
the  bluff  formation  were  the  upper  stratum  beneath  the  soil,  of 
all  that  section  of  the  State  lying  north  of  the  Osage  and  Mis« 
souri  rivers,  and  also  of  the  county  of  St.  Louis  and  other  coun- 
ties lying  on  the  Mississippi  river,  to  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  State.  This  formation  furnishes  a deep,  porous,  flexible  and 
imperishable  sub-soil,  that  absorbs  moisture  like  a sponge  and 
enables  the  soil  to  endure  greater  excesses  of  rain  or  drouth 
than  any  other.  It  rests  upon  the  ridges  and  river  blufls  and 
descends  along  their  slopes  to  the  lowest  valleys.  Reposing  on 
this  surface  is  a great  variety  of  soils,  each  in  its  kind  of  unsur- 
passed fertility  and  productiveness.  From  time  to  time  animal 
remains  and  decayed  vegetable  matter,  in  vast  profusion,  but  in 
just  proportions,  were  added,  until  the  soil  formation  became 
complete,  and  now  exhibits  all  of  the  essentials  for  the  fullest 
nourishment  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  In  the  process  of  the 
formation  of  the  upper  soil,  a rank  vegetation  of  grasses,  plants 
and  trees  sprang  up,  which  was  suppressed  in  the  dryer  portions 
by  fires  that  overrun  the  country.  Along  the  streams,  and  where 
there  was  a scarcity  of  vegetation,  the  fires  failed  to  destroy  the 
young  trees,  which  grew  apace  until  strong  enough  to  resist,  and 
then  they  began  to  encroach  upon  the  prairies ; this  they  con- 
tinued to  do  until  more  than  one-half  of  the  State  was  appropri- 
ated by  our  magnificent  forests. 

“ The  margins  of  the  rivers  first  received  the  most  extensive 
deposits  of  soil  matter  from  floods,  which  carried  down  the  wealth 


332 


SOIL  AND  VEGETATION. 


of  the  vast  regions  they  drained,  and,  upon  the  subsidence  of  the 
waters,  deposited  it  on  the  lower  levels.  Each  flood  furnished 
its  new  supply,  adding  to  the  height  of  the  bottom  lands  until, 
after  the  lapse  of  time,  they  became,  for  the  most  part,  sufficiently 
elevated  to  be  above  danger  of  overflow.  No  rivers  of  the  world 
can  boast  of  more  extensive  bottom  lands  than  can  the  Missouri 
and  Mississippi,  and  none  have  soils  with  ingredients  richer, 
better  combined,  or  more  productive. 

“For  practical  purposes,  the  best  classification  of  the  soils  of 
Missouri  is  that  adopted  by  Professor  Swallow,  which,  after  de- 
fining them  in  general  as  forest,  prairie  and  alluvial  lands,  indi- 
cates their  great  variety  by  the  kind  of  timber  which  Is  most 
abundant  on  them,  or,  where  timber  Is  wanting,  by  the  grasses 
and  plants  of  the  prairie.  Following  this  classification  those 
known  as  Hackberry  Laiids  are  first  in  fertility  and  productive- 
ness. Upon  these  lands  also  grow  elm,  wild  cherry,  honey 
locust,  hickory,  white,  black,  burr  and  chestnut  oaks,  black  and 
white  walnut,  mulberry,  linden,  ash,  poplar,  catalpa,  sassafras  and 
maple.  . The  prairie  soils  of  about  the  same  quality,  if  not  iden- 
tical, are  known  as  Crow  Foot  Lands,  so  called  from  a species  of 
weed  found  upon  them,  and  these  two  soils  generally  join  each 
other  where  the  timber  and  prairie  land  meet.  Both  rest  upon 
a bed  of  fine  siliclous  marls,  and  even  under  most  exhaustive 
tillage  will  prove  perpetually  fertile.  They  cover  more  than 
7,000,000  acres  of  land.  On  this  soil  white  oaks  have  been 
found  twenty-nine  feet  In  circumference  and  one  hundred  feet 
high ; linden  twenty-three  feet  in  circumference  and  quite  as 
lofty;  the  burr  oak  and  sycamore  grow  still  larger.  Prairie 
grasses,  on  the  Crow  Foot  Lands,  grow  very  rank  and  tall,  and 
by  the  old  settlers  were  said  to  entirely  conceal  herds  of  cattle 
from  the  view.  These  lands  alone  are  capable  of  sustaining  a 
population  greater  than  that  now  occupying  the  State  of  Mis- 
souri. 

“Tlie  Ehn  Lands,  whose  name  is  derived  from  the  American 
elm,  which  here  grows  magnificently,  are  scarcely  inferior  to  the 
hackberry  lands,  and  possess  very  nearly  the  same  growth  of 
other  timber.  The  soil  has  about  the  same  properties,  except 


OUR  WESTER X EMPIRE. 


333 


that  the  sand  is  finer  and  the  clay  more  abundant.  The  same 
quality  of  soil  appears  in  the  prairie  known  as  the  Resin  Weed 
Lands. 

“ Next  in  order  are  Hickory  Lands,  with  a growth  of  white  and 
shellbark  hickory,  black,  scarlet  and  laurel  oaks,  sugar  maple, 
persimmon  and  the  haw,  red-bud  and  crab  apple,  trees  of  smaller 
growth.  In  some  portions  of  the  State  the  tulip  tree,  beech  and 
black  gum  grow  on  lands  of  the  same  quality.  Large  areas  of 
prairie  in  the  northeast  and  southwest  have  soils  of  nearly  the 
same  quality  called  Midatto  Soils.  There  is  also  a soil  lying 
upon  the  red  clays  of  Southern  Missouri  similar  to  the  above. 
These  hickory  lands  and  those  described  as  assimilating  to  them, 
are  highly  esteemed  by  the  farmers  for  the  culture  of  corn,  wheat 
and  other  cereals.  They  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  culti- 
vation of  fruits,  and  their  blue  grass  pastures  are  equal  to  any 
in  the  State.  Their  area  may  be  fairly  estimated  at  6,000,000 
acres. 

“The  Magnesian  Lhnestone  Soils  extend  from  Callaway  county 
south  to  the  Arkansas  line,  and  from  Jefferson  west  to  Polk 
county,  an  area  of  about  10,000,000  acres.  These  soils  are  dark, 
warm,  light  and  very  productive.  They  produce  black  and  white 
walnut,  black  gum,  white  and  wahoo  elms,  sugar  maple,  honey 
locust,  mulberry,  chestnut,  post  laurel,  black,  scarlet  and  Spanish 
oaks,  persimmon,  blue  ash  and  many  trees  of  smaller  growth. 
They  cover  all  the  country  underlaid  by  the  magnesian  lime- 
stone series,  but  are  inconvenient  for  ordinary  tillage  when  they 
occupy  the  hillsides  or  narrow  valleys.  Among  the  most  fertile 
£ioils  in  the  State,  they  produce  fine  crops  of  almost  all  the  staples, 
and  thrifty  and  productive  fruit  trees  and  grape  vines  evince 
their  extraordinary  adaptation  and  fitness  to  the  culture  of  the 
grape  and  other  fruits.  Large,  bold  springs  of  limpid,  pure  and 
cool  waters  gush  from  every  hillside  and  flow  away  in  bright 
streams,  giving  beauty  and  attraction  to  the  magnificent  forests  of 
the  elm,  the  oak,  the  mulberry  and  the  buckeye,  which  often  adorn 
their  borders.  The  mining  regions  embraced  in  this  division  of 
the  soils  are  thus  supplied  with  vast  agricultural  wealth  and  a 
large  mining,  pastoral  and  agricultural  population  may  here  be 


334 


OAK,  BLACK  yACK  AND  PINE  LANDS. 


brought  together  in  relations  scarcely  to  be  found  in  any  other 
country  in  the  world.  Blue  grass  and  other  succulent  and  nutri- 
tious grasses  grow  luxuriantly,  even  on  the  ridges  and  hillsides 
of  the  upland  forests,  in  almost  every  portion  of  Southern  Mis- 
souri. The  alfalfa  grass  (^nedicago  sativa),  so  highly  prized  in 
California,  has  been  introduced  into  this  part  of  Missouri,  and 
proves  a valuable  addition  to  the  forage  grasses,  yielding  eight 
tons  of  the  best  of  hay  at  four  cuttings,  withstanding  summer 
droughts,  and  furnishing  excellent  pasture  in  October  and  No- 
vember. 

“On  the  ridges,  where  the  lighter  materials  of  the  soil  have 
been  washed  away,  or  were  originally  wanting.  White  Oak  Lands 
are  to  be  found,  the  oaks  accompanied  by  shellbark  and  black 
hickory,  and  trees  and  shrubs  of  smaller  growth.  While  the  sur- 
face soil  is  not  so  rich  as  the  hickory  lands,  the  sub-soil  is  quite 
as  good,  and  the  land  may  be  greatly  improved  by  turning  the 
sub-soil  to  the  surface.  These  produce  superior  wheat,  good 
corn  and  a very  fine  quality  of  tobacco.  On  these  lands  fruits 
are  abundant  and  a sure  crop.  They  embrace  about  1,500,000 
acres. 

"'Post  Oak  Lands  have  about  the  same  growth  as  the  white  oak 
lands,  and  produce  good  crops  of  the  staples  of  the  country,  and 
yield  the  best  tobacco  in  the  West.  Fruits  of  all  kinds  excel  on 
this  soil.  These  lands  require  deep  culture. 

“The  Black  Jack  occupy  the  high  flint  ridges  underlaid 

with  hornstone  and  sandstone,  and  under  these  conditions  are 
considered  the  poorest  in  the  State,  except  for  pastures  and 
vineyards.  The  presence,  however,  of  black  jack  on  other  lands 
does  not  indicate  thin  or  poor  lands. 

"Phie  Lands  are  extensive,  embracing  about  2,000,000  acres. 
The  pine  is  the  long  leaf  variety,  grows  to  great  size,  and  is  mar- 
ketable. It  is  accompanied  by  heavy  growths  of  oak,  which  takes 
the  country  as  successor  to  the  pine.  This  soil  is  sandy,  is 
adapted  to  small  grains  and  grasses,  and  carries  fertilizers  well. 

“The  bottom  lands  of  the  southeast  are  now  being  rapidly  re- 
duced to  cultivation  by  the  common  effort  of  the  lumberman  and 
settler. 


OCV^!  WES'FERN  EMPIRE. 


Historical  Dates. — First  settlements  in  Missouri  at  or  near  St. 
Louis  and  Cape  Girardeau,  by  the  French,  probably  in  1720;  at 
St.  Genevieve  about  1755.  In  1775  St.  Louis  was  a fur  depot 
and  trading  station,  with  800  inhabitants.  In  1803  France  ceded 
all  this  territory  to  the  United  States.  In  1805  St.  Louis  was 
made  the  capital  of  the  new  Territory  of  Louisiana.  In  1810 
there  were  1,500  inhabitants  within  the  present  limits  of  Missouri. 
In  1812  the  name  of  the  Territory  was  changed  to  Missouri  Ter- 
ritory. In  1820  the  people  prepared  and  adopted  a State  Con- 
stitution. It  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a State  August  10, 
1821,  after  a bitter  and  violent  controversy  in  Congress  as  to  its 
admission  as  a slave  State,  by  an  act  known  as  the  Missouri 
Compromise,  which  permitted  slavery  there,  but  prohibited  it  in 
all  territory  north  of  36°  30'  north  latitude.  This  act  was  virtu- 
ally repealed  in  1854.  The  people  took  part  in  the  Kansas 
difficulties  of  1854-59,  and  were  very  much  divided  in  the  civil 
war.  Several  severe  battles  were  fought  in  the  State.  A new 
Constitution  was  adopted  in  1865,  and  still  another  in  1875, 

CHAPTER  XIII. 


MONTANA. 


Montana  (adm.  in  1889)  is  a Central  State  of  the  Northern  belt 
of  States  of  “Our  Western  Empire.”  About  four-fifths  of  its 
area  lies  east  of  the  Main  Divide  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Be- 
tween this  Main  Divide  and  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains,  which 
are  a second  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  form  the 
boundary  between  Montana  and  Idaho,  is  a broad,  elevated 
valley,  through  which  flows  Clarke’s  fork  of  the  Columbia  river. 
East  of  the  Main  Divide  there  are  several  isolated  mesas  or  pla- 
teaus, such  as  the  Snake’s  Head,  Beque  d’Otard,  Bear’s  Paw, 
Little  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Snow  Mountains  and  Bull  Moun- 
tains farther  south.  In  the  southeast  there  are  several  short 
ranges  extending  northward  from  Wyoming,  and  part  of  them 
apparently  connected  with  the  Black  Hills.  These  are,  begin- 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


ning  with  the  west,  a short  spur  from  the  Big  Horn  range,  the 
Wolf  Mountains,  Tongue  River  Mountains,  and  the  Powder  River 
range,  which  consists  of  four  or  five  chains  of  hills  of  no  great 
elevation,  on  both  sides  of  the  Powder  river  and  its  tributaries, 
and  Cabin  creek,  all  affluents  of  the  Yellowstone.  The  valleys 
of  the  Missouri  and  its  three  constituent  streams,  the  Madison, 
Jeflerson  and  Gallatin,  of  the  Yellowstone  and  its  numerous 
tributaries,  of  Clarke’s  fork,  the  Milk  river,  Maria’s  river,  Flathead, 
Musselshell  and  other  rivers,  affluents  of  the  Missouri  or  the 
Yellowstone,  are  fertile  and  level  or  rolling  lands^  somewhat  ele- 
vated, but  not  cold  or  bleak.  The  timber  of  Montana  is  peculiar, 
there  being  very  little  hard  wood;  if  deciduous,  the  trees  are 
almost  wholly  willow,  poplar,  linden  and  cottonwood ; the  only 
exception  being  on  Tongue  river,  near  the  southern  boundary, 
where  there  are  large  bodies  of  oak  ; if  evergreens,  pine,  spruce, 
fir,  cedar  and  balsam.  The  native  grass  is  mainly  the  bunch  grass, 
which  grows  to  the  height  of  four  or  five  feet,  and  is  the  most 
nutritious  of  all  the  native  grasses  of  this  region  for  cattle,  fatten- 
ing them  more  thoroughly  than  corn  or  barley.  Flowers  are 
abundant  in  their  season  in  all  the  valleys. 

Montana  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  British  Columbia ; on  the 
east  by  Dakota  ; on  the  south  by  Wyoming  and  Idaho ; on  the 
west  by  Idaho,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Bitter  Root 
Mountains.  It  lies  between  the  parallels  of  44°  6'  (its  southwest- 
ern corner  only  extending  below  45°)  and  49°  north  latitude; 
and  between  104°  and  1 16°  west  longitude  from  Greenwich.  Its 
greatest  length  from  east  to  west  along  the  48th  parallel  is  over 
700  miles;  and  its  greatest  breadth  near  the  113th  meridian  is 
about  340  miles.  Its  area  is  143,776  square  miles,  or  92,016,640 
acres. 

Moitntains,  Lakes,  Rivers,  etc, — Montana  is  appropriately 
named,  for  mountain  ranges,  spurs,  isolated  peaks  and  hills  con- 
stitute a large  portion  of  its  surface.  Yet  between,  around  and 
among  these  mountains  are  a great  number  of  as  lovely  valleys 
as  the  sun  ever  shone  upon.  The  mountains,  unlike  those  of 
Idaho,  are  not,  with  a few  exceptions,  bare,  with  steep  and  inac- 
cessible sides,  but  rounded  summits,  covered  either  with  grass 


MOUNTAINS  AND  RIVERS  OF  M0N7ANA. 


^ ^ 7 

oj/ 

or  timber  to  the  very  top.  They  are  admirably  adapted  to 
grazing,  and  of  all  the  lands  of  “Our  Western  Empire,”  Montana 
is  likely  to  be  most  completely  the  grazier’s  paradise.  The  sum- 
mits are  none  of  them  so  lofty  as  some  of  those  in  Idaho  or 
Colorado,  none  of  them  reaching  1 1 ,000  feet.  There  are  three 
peaks  in  the  Yellowstone  Park  which  are  credited,  not  all  of  them 
correctly,  to  Montana.  Of  these  Electric  Peak  is  10,992  feet; 
Mount  Washburn,  10,388  feet,  and  Mount  Doane,  10,118  feet. 
Aside  from  these  there  are  but  six  peaks  above  9,000  feet  in 
height.  These  are : Emigrant  Peak,  10,629;  Ward’s  Peak,  10,- 
371;  Mount  Delano,  10,200;  Mount  Blackmore,  10,134;  Old 
Baldy,  9,711,  and  Badger’s  Peak,  9,000  feet.  There  are  four 
passes  over  the  Rocky  Mountains  within  the  limits  of  the  Terris 
tory ; Cadott’s  pass,  between  the  47th  and  48th  parallels,  6,044 
feet  high ; Deer  Lodge  pass,  between  the  same  parallels,  6,200 
feet;  Lewis  and  Clarke’s  pass,  6,323  feet,  and  Elathead  pass,  in 
the  north  of  the  Territory,  5,459  feet.  The  general  elevation  of 
the  Territory  is  from  2,500  to  3,000  feet. 

Montana  is  not,  like  Minnesota,  a land  abounding  in  lakes. 
There  are  not  more  than  ten  or  twelve  in  the  Territory ; of  these 
Flathead  lake  is  the  largest,  and  Grizzly  Bear  lake,  a triangular 
lake  in  the  western  part,  nearly  north  of  Helena,  the  most  pecu- 
liar in  form. 

Montana  is  certainly  well  supplied  with  rivers,  though  portions 
of  it  may  need  irrigation.  The  Missouri,  including  its  head 
waters,  has  a course  of  more  than  1,200  miles  in  this  Territory; 
the  Yellowstone,  its  largest  affluent,  about  850;  Maria’s  river. 
Milk  river,  Breast  or  Teton  river.  Rolling  Branch  and  Park  river 
are  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  Missouri  on  its  north  bank ; 
on  its  south  bank  it  receives  Red  Water,  Elk  Prairie  and  Big  Dry 
creeks,  and  the  large  and  important  Musselshell  river,  the  Judith 
river  and  many  smaller  streams,  besides  the  three  forks,  Jeffer- 
son, Madison  and  Gallatin,  which  unite  to  form  the  Missouri. 
The  Yellowstone,  rising  in  Yellowstone  lake  in  the  National 
Park,  has  numerous  affluents,  especially  on  its  south  bank;  among 
these  are  Clarke’s  fork,  Pryor  river,  the  Big  Horn  or  Wind  river, 
Rosebud  creek.  Tongue  river,  the  Powder  river  with  its  numerous 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


branches,  and  Cabin  creek.  In  the  valley,  between  the  Rocky 
and  Bitter  Root  Mountains,  the  Clarke’s  fork  of  the  Columbia 
river  has  a course  of  about  300  miles,  and  the  Lewis  fork  or 
Snake  river,  another  affluent  of  the  Columbia,  has  its  source  in 
Yellowstone  National  Park,  and  perhaps  within  the  bounds  of 
Montana.  The  Kootenai,  probably  still  another  tributary  of  the 
Columbia, has  its  head  waters  in  Northwestern  Montana.  Clarke’s 
fork  has  two  or  three  affluents  of  considerable  size,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  Missoula  and  the  Flathead  river ; the 
latter  passes  through  Flathead  lake.  Nearly  all  these  rivers 
furnish  abundant  water-power. 

Geology  and  Mmeralogy . — The  volcanic  action  in  the  past,  and 
the  repeated  epochs  of  upheaval,  have  made  the  geology  of  Mon- 
tana somewhat  involved,  but  some  simple  explanations  will  give 
the  reader  a tolerable  understanding  of  it.  In  the  early  geologic 
ages,  the  eastern  half  of  Montana  seems  to  have  been  a shallow 
sea,  and  its  deposits  were  of  chalk  and  the  chalky  limestones  of 
the  cretaceous  period.  These  cretaceous  deposits  were  suc- 
ceeded farther  west  by  the  rocks  of  the  Wealden  and  Jurassic 
periods — limestones,  sandstones  and  shales,  and  during  their 
deposition,  as  well  as  that  of  the  cretaceous  rocks  farther  east, 
there  was  a great  abundance  of  the  lower  forms  of  animal  life 
of  gigantic  size,  mollusks  and  radiate  animals,  and  some  fish. 
The  ammonites,  conchifers,  gasteropods,  terebratulae  and  other 
radiates  and  mollusks  found  in  these  rocks  are  among  the 
largest  of  these  fossils  ever  discovered.  Fossil  plants  are  also 
plentiful,  and,  in  the  Wealden,  fossil  insects,  reptiles  and  fish 
abound;  at  the  western  limit  of  these  beds  there  are  narrow  belts 
of  Silurian  rocks.  Over  all  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  in  the 
Bitter  Root  range  and  the  valley  between,  as  well  as  in  occa- 
sional patches  east  of  the  mountains,  especially  in  the  isolated 
nountains  and  buttes  of  Central  Montana,  we  have  evidence  of 
repeated  and  violent  convulsions  of  nature,  and  the  ejection  of 
vast  quantities  of  lava  and  of  molten  azoic  and  metamorphic 
rocks  through  the  superimposed  strata.  There  were  at  one  time 
numerous  active  volcanoes  in  this  region.  The  repeated  up- 
heavals and  their  time  of  activity  was  probably  mainly  during  the 


GE  OLOGY  AND  MINEIRAL  OGY. 


339 

tertiary  period,  though  a later  upheaval  occurred  in  the  post- 
tertiary  or  quaternary  period,  perhaps  almost  within  historic 
times.  As  a result  of  this  action,  the  whole  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain summits  and  those  of  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains,  Bear  Paw, 
Great  and  Little  Belt,  Crazy,  Judith,  Snowy  and  Highwood 
Mountains,  are  composed  of  eozoic  rocks,  granite,  porphyry,  trap, 
etc.,  and  contain  many  veins  and  lodes  of  gold,  silver,  copper, 
lead  and  zinc,  and  possibly  platinum  and  quicksilver.  The  course 
of  these  veins,  as  well  as  the  regular  position  of  the  stratified 
rocks,  is  greatly  disturbed  and  deranged  by  the  frequent  dikes 
of  porphyry,  trap  and  obsidian  which  have  intruded  upon  the 
others  when  in  a state  of  fusion. 

Bordering  these  igneous  rocks  we  find  belts  of  Silurian  rocks, 
and  beyond  these  the  Jurassic  and  Wealden  beds,  often  overlaid 
by  either  tertiary  or  post-tertiary  deposits,  and  these  by  allu- 
vium. Farther  south,  in  the  Yellowstone  Park,  we  find  abundant 
evidence  that  volcanic  action,  though  feebler  now  than  formerly, 
has  not  yet  ceased.  After  the  volcanic  action  of  which  we  have 
spoken,  Montana  must  have  presented  the  appearance  of  a series 
of  large  fresh  water  lakes  whose  shores  were  the  summits  of  the 
present  mountain  ranges.  From  these  mountain  slopes  came 
extensive  glaciers,  as  the  elevation  was  greater  than  now  after 
many  ages  of  denuding  action  and  the  intense  cold  of  that  time 
favored  the  formation  of  these  glaciers,  which  carried  down  in 
the  glacial  deposits  large  quantities  of  gold  and  silver,  and  thus 
formed  those  immensely  rich  placers  which  have  yielded  such 
vast  quantities  of  gold.  While  the  glaciers,  by  their  denudatory 
action,  reduced  the  mountains  and  cut  them  into  the  most  fan- 
tastic shapes,  there  must  have  been  also  a gradual  subsidence  of 
these  elevated  plains,  and  this  subsidence  rendered  the  climate 
milder,  and  thus  the  ice  of  the  glaciers,  melting  the  moraines  oi 
debris,  were  deposited  along  their  course.  The  boulders  scat- 
tered by  these  glaciers  are  found  all  over  the  western  half  of 
Montana,  and  to  a considerable  extent  in  the  southeast  also. 
Eastern  and  Northeastern  Montana,  having  been  originally  the 
bed  of  a lake,  have  not  undergone  so  many  changes,  and  the  super- 
ficial geology  is  later ; the  tertiary  and  post-tertiary  deposits  arc 


340 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


the  surface  rocks  of  this  region,  though  there  are  occasional  out- 
crops of  the  cretaceous  rocks.  It  is  a disputed  point  whether 
the  lignite  or  brown  coal  of  the  region  lying  west  of  the  Little 
Missouri  river  and  extending  almost  to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  from  the  Black  Hills  nearly  to  the  British  line,  belongs  to 
the  tertiary  or  to  the  cretaceous  epoch,  but  the  opinion  of  the 
most  eminent  geologists  is  in  favor  of  its  being  a tertiary  deposit. 
It  is  a very  good  coal,  and  is  coming  into  demand  largely  not 
only  for  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway,  which  traverses  it  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles,  but  for  domestic  purposes,  for  which  purpose  it 
is  far  better  than  the  cottonwood  and  linden  firewood,  and  is  less 
than  half  the  price  of  wood. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Montana  is  very  great.  The  whole  re- 
gion lying  west  of  the  Big  Horn,  Musselshell  and  Milk  rivers, 
comprising  fully  three-fifths  of  the  Territory,  is  full  of  gold  and 
silver.  The  placers  and  gold  lodes  of  this  region  lying  west  of 
the  foot-hills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  comprising  not  more  than 
one-fourth  of  the  territory,  have  yielded  in  gold  since  1863 
about  J 1 40,000,000  in  gold  and  $10,000,000  or  more  in  silver. 
Eastern  Montana,  except  perhaps  in  the  southeast,  is  better 
adapted  to  agriculture  and  grazing,  though  this,  as  we  have  said, 
includes  extensive,  beds  of  coal.  Of  other  minerals,  copper,  lead 
and  zinc  are  found  extensively,  the  last  two  generally  in  connec- 
tion with  silver.  There  are  immense  beds  of  iron  ores.  Petro- 
leum has  been  discovered  at  several  points.  The  silver  ores  of 
Montana  belong  to  the  refractory  class,  and  the  principal  obstacle 
in  the  way  of  a much  greater  annual  yield  from  the  rich  silver 
mines  of  Montana  has  been  due  to  this  very  refractoriness.  The 
ores  averaged  perhaps  sixty-five  to  seventy-five  ounces  of  silver, 
and  from  twenty  to  forty-five  per  cent,  of  lead  to  the  ton,  but  in 
the  various  processes  necessary  for  their  reduction — processes 
which  could  only  be  conducted  at  Omaha,  Newark,  N.  J.,  or 
Freiberg,  Germany,  and  the  enormous  expense  of  their  trans- 
portation to  a railroad,  the  nearest  being  about  300  miles  distant, 
and  the  freight  very  heavy,  while  the  reducing  processes  were 
also  expensive — there  was  a necessary  expenditure  of  from  ^108  to 
$i  14  per  ton,  and  the  returns  did  not  come  in  under  from  four 


SOIL  AND  VEGETATION. 


341 


to  six  months  from  the  time  of  shipment  of  the  ore.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  mining  companies  lost  money  on  all  ores  which 
did  not  yield  at  least  140  ounces  of  silver  to  the  ton,  and  even  on 
150  ounces  they  only  made  a mere  pittance.  Several  attempts 
were  made  to  establish  reduction  works  at  some  point  in  the 
Territory,  but  owing  to  the  immense  cost  of  their  transportation 
and  bad  management  afterwards,  they  all  proved  failures.  The 
last  effort  was  made  in  1879  at  Wickes,  and  has  proved  success- 
ful, and  as  the  Utah  and  Northern  Railroad  now  traverses  this 
part  of  the  Territory,  and  the  Northern  Pacific  will  soon  be  there, 
the  days  of  costly  transportation  and  high  cost  reduction  have 
come  to  an  end. 

Soil  and  Vegetation. — In  the  western,  central  and  southern 
portions  of  the  State,  the  land  along  the  valleys  adjacent  to 
the  streams  is  rich  and  well  adapted  to  agriculture,  large  crops 
of  grain,  vegetables,  etc.,  being  produced  with  little  or  no  irriga- 
tion. The  soil  of  the  table  lands  is  generally  good,  only  re- 
quiring irrigation,  for  which  abundant  water  can  be  had,  to  pro- 
duce largely;  while  the  foot  hills  are  covered  with  an  abundant 
growth  of  nutritious  grasses  extending  to  the  timber  line.  In 
the  northern  and  eastern  portions  of  the  country  are  vast  tracts 
of  so-called  Bad  Lands ; but  these  have  a much  worse  name  than 
they  deserve,  many  portions  of  them  being  covered  with  grasses 
more  or  less  abundant,  and  affording  grazing  to  large  herds  of 
buffalo,  antelope,  etc.,  and  where  there  are  stock  farms  near,  to 
cattle  also.  The  country  is  well  timbered  throughout,  though, 
as  we  have  already  said,  the  soft  woods,  whether  evergreen  or 
deciduous,  predominate  largely.  There  are  some  small  groves 
of  ash,  and  large  bodies  of  oak  have  lately  been  discovered  on 
the  head  waters  of  Tongue  river,  near  the  southern  boundary. 
The  forests  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  settlements  have  suf- 
fered somewhat  from  the  wanton  depredations  of  settlers,  who 
often  destroy  half  a dozen  small  trees  in  obtaining  one  of  requi- 
site size  for  their  purposes ; but  even  in  those  sections,  where 
the  hillsides  have  been  stripped  entirely  bare,  there  is  a sturdy 
and  flourishing  second  growth.  The  loss  from  forest  fires  is  far 
greater  than  from  any  other  source,  but  as  the  country  becomes 

6r 


342 


OUR  WESTERN  EMRIRE. 


more  settled,  and  the  Indians,  who  are  most  careless  with  fire,  are 
kept  upon  their  reservations,  these  will  become  less  frequent. 
Until  the  present  year  (1880),  there  being  no  railroad  for  the 
transportation  of  grain  out  of  the  State,  and  the  steam- 
boat navigation  interrupted  by  falls  and  rapids,  there  was  no  ex- 
port demand  for  Montana  grain.  This  is  all  changed  now ; the 
Northern  Pacific  enters  the  territory  from  the  east,  and  is  already 
near  Powder  river,  while  the  Utah  and  Northern  is  already  at 
Helena,  and  will  probably  go  further,  and  the  Pend  d’Oreille 
Division  of  the  North  Pacific,  which  communicates  directly  with 
the  Pacific  through  the  Columbia  river,  will  soon  be  stretching 
down  the  valley  of  Clarke’s  Fork.  With  these  three  outlets  the 
agricultural  lands  of  Montana  will  be  rapidly  taken  up,  and  there 
is  no  better  land  for  agricultural  crops  in  the  world.  The  yield 
per  acre  of  grain,  vegetables,  etc.,  with  irrigation  where  it  is 
needed,  and  without  it  where  it  is  not,  is  very  large,  and  the  quality 
is  of  the  best.  Montana  wheat  especially  is  unexcelled;  careful 
analysis  has  demonstrated  that  it  contains  a larger  amount  of 
both  the  flesh  and  fat  producing  constituents  than  any  other,  and 
the  weight  is  from  sixty-four  to  sixty-nine  pounds  to  the  bushel 
(the  standard  being  sixty),  and  the  average  yield  from  thirty  to 
forty  bushels.  The  country  will  not  only  be  self-sustaining  in 
respect  to  its  cereals,  but  will  have  for  many  years  to  come  a large 
supply  for  exportation. 

Zoology. — The  larger  game  animals  are  abundant  in  Montana. 
This  is  one  of  the  few  remaining  haunts  of  the  buffalo,  which  is 
now  found  in  considerable  numbers  both  north  of  the  Missouri 
and  south  of  the  Yellowstone.  The  moose  is  seen,  though  not 
in  large  numbers,  in  the  mountain  gorges.  The  elk  roam  in 
large  herds  on  the  mountain  slopes  and  in  the  valleys,  as  do  the 
two  species  of  deer.  The  Big  Horn  or  Rocky  Mountain  sheep 
and  the  antelope  are  at  home  all  over  the  territory.  Bears, 
badgers,  gray  wolves,  panthers,  beaver,  otter,  marten  and  mink, 
are  found  in  the  forests  and  streams  in  great  numbers,  and  are 
largely  captured  for  their  pelts.  In  the  mountain  streams  are 
an  abundance  of  salmon  trout,  brook  trout  and  grayling  ; and 
in  their  season  the  rivers  and  lakes  are  alive  with  wild  geese, 


ZOOLOGY  AND  CLIMATE  01  MONTANA. 


343 


brant,  ducks  of  numerous  species,  and  teal.  The  birds  of  prey 
are  less  numerous  than  farther  south,  though  there  are  two 
species  of  eagle  and  many  hawks  and  owls.  Song  birds  are 
abundant. 

Population. — The  last  Census  gives  the  figure  of  132,159, 
scarce  one  soui  to  each  square  mile  of  its  rugged  surface.  It 
was  but  40,000  in  1880,  and  only  20,000  ten  years  before. 
The  whole  vote  in  1890  for  Congress  was  31,090. 

Climate. — “ In  a general  way,”  says  Mr.  Thomson  P.  McPilrath, 
in  his  excellent  little  volume  on  the  Yellowstone  valley,  just  pub- 
lished, “ the  climate  of  Montana  may  be  compared  to  that  of  the 
western  sections  of  the  Middle  States.  The  summers  are  very 
warm,  but,  as  a rule,  the  winters  are  far  from  being  rigorous. 
The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  valleys  of  Montana  is  48°, 
which  is  higher  than  that  of  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin  or  Iowa,  and  only  a little  lower  than  that  of  Ne- 
braska, Illinois  and  Ohio.  Owing  to  the  purity  and  dryness  of 
the  atmosphere,  the  heat,  which  is  in  the  ascendency  during  five 
months  of  the  year,  is  seldom  oppressive.  There  is  a reduced 
tendency  to  perspire,  and  out-door  exercise  with  the  mercury  at 
100°  is  not  nearly  so  uncomfortable  as  it  is  in  the  East  under 
considerably  lower  conditions  of  caloric.  A brief  rainy  season 
sets  in  annually,  in  April  or  May,  lasting  with  considerably  more 
persistency  than  in  corresponding  latitudes  on  the  Missouri  river, 
until  the  middle  of  July,  under  the  refreshing  influence  of  which 
vegetation  receives  a wonderful  impulse.  The  same  amount  of 
rain  distributed  through  the  whole  year  would  be  of  little  value 
to  the  agriculturist.  During  the  rest  of  the  year  rain  seldom 
falls  in  large  quantities.”  * 

The  average  mean  temperature  of  Helena,  Montana,  which  is 
1,000  feet  higher  than  many  of  the  valleys,  is  44.5  degrees; 
that  of  six  stations  in  Minnesota  for  the  same  time  41.6  degrees; 
the  amount  of  rain  and  melted  snow  at  Helena,  22.36  inches;  in 
Minnesota,  27.89  inches.  The  average  temperature  of  the  winter 
months  at  Helena  is  23.7  degrees;  of  Minnesota,  21.3  degrees. 


344 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire 
for  six  years  (from  1866  to  1872)  was  43.7  degrees;  of  Vermont, 

43.2  degrees;  that  of  the  valleys  of  Montana,  48  degrees;  yet 
half  of  Maine  and  nearly  the  whole  of  Vermont  and  New  Hamp- 
shire are  below  the  45th  parallel,  which  forms  Montana’s  south- 
ern boundary.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Wisconsin  for 
five  years  (1866  to  1871)  was  44.8  degrees;  of  Michigan,  45.8 
degrees;  of  Iowa,  46.4  degrees;  Massachusetts  and  New  York, 

47.3  degrees;  Connecticut,  47.6  degrees;  Nebraska,  48.6  de- 
grees; Illinois,  49.9  degrees;  Ohio,  51.2  degrees. 

The  Missouri  river  at  Helena  is  thoroughly  open  a month 
earlier  each  spring  than  at  Omaha,  500  miles  further  south.  The 
rainy  season  is  in  June,  while  the  amount  of  rainfall  is  three- 
fourths  that  of  Minnesota. 

The  winters  are  generally  open,  the  long  nights  at  that  season 
being  quite  cold,  but  the  days  brilliant  and  far  milder  than  would 
be  expected  in  so  high  a latitude.  The  dryness  of  the  atmosphere 
likewise  prevents  the  cold  from  being  as  severely  felt  as  it  is  in 
damp  climates.  The  snow  fall  in  the  valleys  is  in  most  winters 
quite  light,  and  after  falling  it  is  quickly  melted  or  carried  off  by 
evaporation.  The  army  officers  stationed  at  Fort  Keogh  declare 
that  until  the  past  winter  they  have  never  enjoyed  sleighing  on 
the  prairies  for  a week  at  a time,  except  occasionally  in  March, 
when  the  clear  weather  which  had  prevailed  almost  unbrokenly 
since  the  previous  rainy  season  gave  way  to  a short  period  of 
cold  squalls  accompanied  by  snow.  These  wind  storms  are  liable 
to  occur  at  any  time  during  the  year,  resembling  in  the  sudden 
lowering  of  temperature  which  accompanies  them  the  chilling 
“ northers  ” of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  occasionally  equalling  in 
their  vehemence  and  abrupt  subsidence  the  hurricanes  which  pre- 
vail on  our  South  Atlantic  coast  yearly,  from  the  middle  of  Au- 
gust to  the  middle  of  September. 

Another  phenomenon  of  a more  agreeable  character  witnessed 
frequently  in  the  winter  season  is  the  occurrence  of  the  so-called 
“ Chinook  wind,”  a balmy  zephyr,  which,  wafted  from  the  Pacific 
Ocean  and  penetrating  the  gaps  and  passes  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, converts  winter  cold  into  summer  warmth  so  suddenly  that 


BLIZZARDS  AND  CHINOOK^'  WINDS.  345 

sometimes  a foot  depth  of  snow  will  evaporate  and  disappear 
under  its  influence  in  the  course  of  a single  day.  This  is  the 
realization  of  the  “ Japan  current  ” theory,  and  while  it  prevails, 
it  fully  justifies  that  idea.  One  writer  says : “ I have  known  a 
foot  of  snow  on  the  level  to  fall  during  the  night  and  every  patch 
of  it  to  be  melted  before  noon  of  the  next  day;  and  there  are 
open  spells  in  mid-winter,  often  lasting  many  days,  when  the 
trapper  is  comfortable  without  a coat  over  his  woollen  shirt.” 
General  Miles  and  others  at  Fort  Keogh  testify  to  similar  facts. 
The  winter  of  1879-80  was  exceptionally  cold  and  protracted. 
From  the  end  of  November  to  the  middle  of  March  there  was 
almost  continuous  sleighing  in  the  lower  Tongue  river  region, 
though  the  snow  was  not  deep  and  the  mercury,  ranging  in  the 
vicinity  of  zero  for  several  weeks,  reached  on  one  occasion,  and 
probably  only  momentarily,  on  the  night  of  December  24,  1879, 
as  Iowa  point  as — 57°.  The  Indians  about  Fort  Keogh  declared 
emphatically  that  they  had  never  known  the  cold  weather  before 
to  be  so  intense  and  so  long  continued.  Notwithstanding  the 
remarkably  low  temperature  which  prevailed  for  so  long  a period, 
no  extraordinary  discomfort  was  experienced  beyond  a few  frozen 
fingers  and  toes  on  the  part  of  travellers  and  soldiers  unavoidably 
exposed  on  the  bleak  prairie  roads,  and  not  a single  instance  has 
been  announced  of  cattle  perishing  from  cold  on  their  snow-cov- 
ered pastures.  The  “ Chinook  wind  ” did  not  seem  to  manifest 
itself  as  efficiently  as  usual  during  that  winter  season.  There 
was  not  much  snow,  however,  in  the  valley  twenty  miles  above 
Miles  City;  and  eighty  miles  up  the  Tongue  river  the  cold  was 
not  nearly  so  severe  as  that  above  recorded.  Subjoined  is  a 
condensed  summary  never  before  published  of  the  meteorological 
observations  made  at  the  United  States  signal  station  at  Fort 
Keogh  since  the  occupation  of  the  valley  by  white  residents.  The 
observations  were  begun  in  the  middle  of  January,  1879.  The 
table  shows  the  highest  and  lowest  temperature  recorded  during 
each  month,  the  average  daily  temperature,  the  range  of  temper- 
ature in  each  month,  and  the  total  rainfall. 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


340 


Thermomeiric  Observations  at  Fort  Keogh,  1879-80. 


MONTH. 

TEMPERATURE. 

Mean 

temper- 

ature. 

1 

Range. 

Total  rain- 
fall, Inches. 

Highest.  Lowest. 

1879. 

0 

0 

0 

1 

° 1 

January  (from  i3Lh' 

36 

1 1 

32 

25 

.26 

February  

52 

—15 

23 

67 

.69 

March 

76 

—25 

40 

lOI 

.28 

April 

76 

23 

60 

53 

2.20 

May 

■ 

30 

66 

55 

2.75 

June 

94 

40 

74 

54 

5-23 

July 

100 

50 

83 

50 

5-90 

August 

97 

40 

83 

57 

1.84 

September 

: 96 

33 

71 

63 

.44 

October 

90 

12 

58 

78 

2.47 

November 

94 

— 5 

42 

99 

.11 

December 

42 

—46 

2 

88 

00 

1880. 

January 

50 

—18 

68 

32 

February  

54 

—19 

... 

73 

•T7 

March ... 

72 

—24 

... 

96 

•51 

Annual  range,  146  degrees. 

Total  rainfall  and  melted  snow  in  1879,  22.75  inches. 


The  figures  in  the  fifth  column  form  a more  effective  refutation 
of  the  “barren  land”  theory  than  any  argument  that  could  be 
framed  in  words  alone.  But  the  collateral  facts  speak  yet  more 
emphatically  than  the  figures  ! 

In  further  illustration  of  the  climate,  we  add  the  weather  report 
from  Fort  Benton,  Montana,  which  lies  on  or  near  the  forty- 
eighth  parallel : 


Weather  Report  at  Fort  Bentofi  from  Janiiai'y  i,  1872,  July  i,  1879. 


i 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875- 

1876. 

00  1 

1 

00 

00 

First  six 
months 
1879. 

No.  of  fair  days 

305 

291 

277 

289 

286 

300 

195 

1 10 

No.  of  cloudv  davs 

60 

74 

88 

76 

79 

65 

169 

70 

Mean  temperature  of  year.  . 

37-25 

42° 

42°.5 

43°-5 

30°-75 

4i°.oo 

48°.oo 

Sprinjr 

11° 

25° 

13° 

17° 

14° 

24° 

37° 

21° 

Summer 

48° 

52° 

56° 

55° 

54° 

50° 

55° 

58° 

Autumn 

61° 

63° 

68° 

66° 

61° 

58° 

64° 

Winter  

29° 

28° 

33° 

36° 

30° 

32° 

36° 

Average  annual  fill  f)f  rain 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In.  1 

In. 

In. 

In. 

Inches, 

I or  melted  snow 

17.00 

12.72 

23.76 

21.84  1 

20.64 

12.72 

20.40 

21.60 

METEOROLOGICAL  TABLES. 


347 


This  shows  an  average  of  275  fair  days  for  each  year. 

We  also  give  from  the  Surveyor-General’s  office  in  Helena 
the  following  record  of  temperature  and  weather  in  1878-9: 


Record  of  Temperature  at  Helena,  Montana,  from  July,  1878,  to  June,  1879,  inclusive,  taken 
at  the  office  of  the  Survey  or- Genera  I for  Montana. 


Month. 

Highest. 

Lowest. 

Mean. 

- - 1 

c/ 

^ ; 

^ \ 

C5  i 

a 1 

j. 

rt 

-c 

0 

G 

1 Snowy  days. 

1 

Rainy  days. 

— 

1 

° i 

° 1 

° 1 

1 July  TS7S 

98 

50  1 

74 

24  [ 

I 

6 

94 

^ 1 

70^  i 

28  ! 

2 

I 

1 September,  1878 

85 

30  1 

54^4 

16 

10 

I 

3 

’ October,  1878 

76 

12  1 

46^ 

14 

12 

I 

4 

i November,  1878 

62 

22 

41^ 

23 

5 

2 

December,  1878 

■52 

0 I 

27 

9 

15 

7 

January,  1879 

52 

— 12 

23>l 

23 

1 5 

3 

February,  1879 

62 

— II 

26 

19 

4 

5 

March,  1879 

1 71 

8 

38K 

24 

4 

3 

April,  1879 

, 70 

27 

49 

16 

13 

* 

May,  1879 

77 

30 

53K 

14 

12 

5 

Jnnp 

80 

43 

59>^ 

12 

5 

13 

For  the  year 

98° 

— 1 1 

44.6 

222 

88 

1 22 

33 

We  add  also  the — 

Meteorology  of  Virginia  City,  Montana,  1878. 


Year  and 

Months. 

Temperature. 

Moisture. 

Barome- 

ter. 

Winds. 

Maximum 

Temperatures. 

Minimum 

Temperatures. 

Mean 

Temperatures. 

Range  of 
Temperature. 

Annual  and 
Monthly 
Rainfall. 

L 

Mean 

Humidity. 

Annual  and 
Monthly  Mean 
Pressure. 

Prevailing  Winds 
in  the 

Order  of  their  Frequency. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

inches. 

percent. 

inches. 

Direction. 

Year 

92 

—15 

42.2 

107 

20.06 

54-0 

29,705 

Calm,  S.  E.,  W..S.W..N.E. 

January 

43 

—4 

23.1 

47 

0.45 

62.5 

29,661 

Calm.  S.  E.,  S.  W.,  N.  E. 

February 

49 

10 

27.9 

39 

0.62 

63.2 

29,536 

Calm,  S.  W.,  S.  E.,  W. 

March 

64 

II 

37-8 

53 

0.91 

58.2 

29,657 

S.  E..  calm,  S.  W.,  W. 

April 

65 

19 

39-8 

46 

1.83 

57-0 

29,565 

W.,  S.  E.,  S.  W..  E..  calm. 

May 

70 

25 

45-5 

45 

5.13 

54.8 

29,668 

Calm,  S.  E.,  N.  E.,  W.,  S.W. 

June 

85 

35 

58. G 

50 

378 

48.0 

29,766 

Calm,  S.E.,  W.,  N.W.,  N.E.  j 

July 

92 

42 

67.2 

50 

0.88 

36-9 

29,745 

Calm,  S.  E.,  W..  S.,  N.  E.  | 

1 August 

90 

50 

69.2 

40 

2.16 

45-4 

29,808 

Calm.  S.  E.,  N.  E.,  E..W.  1 

September 

88 

26 

48.9 

62 

1.36 

54-5 

29,771 

Calm,  S.  E.,  W..  N.  E.  j 

October 

64 

9 

38.9 

55 

0.98 

59-7 

29,734 

Calm,  W.,  N.  W.,  S.  W.  ! 

November 

59 

II 

351 

48 

0.31 

54-0 

29,777 

Calm,  S.  E..  W. 

December 

1 

46 

—15 

17.7 

61 

0.65 

72.0 

29,785 

W.,  calm.  S.  W.,  N.  W.  j 

Mining. — It  is  matter  of  history  that  in  1852,  a Scotch  half- 
breed  from  the  Red  River  country,  returning  from  California, 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


34S 

found  gold  on  Gold  creek,  in  Deer  Lodge  county.  This  was,  of 
course,  a placer,  though  apparently  not  a very  rich  one.  Others 
who  had  heard  of  this  find, .in  1856  prospected  Benetsee  creek, 
in  the  same  vicinity,  and  found  some  gold,  as  did  another  party 
who  came  thither  in  1858  ; but  being  without  provisions  or  tools, 
and  the  Indians  being  hostile,  they  soon  abandoned  the  country. 
In  i860,  Henry  Thomas,  better  known  as  “Gold  Tom,”  sunk  a 
shaft  down  to  the  bed  rock  on  Benetsee  creek,  a depth  of  thirty 
feet;  but  owing  to  his  poverty  and  disadvantages  for  work, 
having  but  little  food  and  but  few  tools,  he  only  made  about  $1.50 
a day.  From  i860  to  1863,  the  Stuart  brothers,  James,  Granville 
and  Thomas,  a Mr.  Anderson,  M.  Bozeman,  S.  T.  Hauser,  F. 
Louthan  and  others,  were  the  principal  pioneers  in  gold  discov- 
eries in  what  is  now  known  as  Southwestern  Montana.  The 
earlier  discoveries  were  all  of  placers,  some  of  them  exceedingly 
rich.  Alder  gulch,  on  which  Virginia  City  is  situated,  was  prob- 
ably the  richest  placer  ever  discovered  in  any  part  of  the  world. 
At  first  the  product  was  from  $100  to  $200  a day  for  each  man, 
and  in  the  first  five  years  after  its  discovery  Alder  gulch  and  its 
tributaries  yielded  on  an  average  $S, 000, 000  a year.  The  total 
product  from  this  single  placer  up  to  the  end  of  1876  was  $70,- 
000,000.  Latterly  it  has  fallen  off  to  ^600,000  or  ^800,000  a 
year.  Silver  Creek  gulch,  about  twelve  miles  from  Helena,  and 
Last  Chance  gulch,  upon  which  the  town  of  Helena  itself  is  situ- 
ated, have  also  proved  very  rich  placers,  the  two  yielding  about 
^ 1 6,000,000  since  their  discovery.  Mining  is  still  continued  in 
these  and  other  placers,  and  the  advent  of  railroads  into  the  re- 
gion has  caused  machinery  and  timber  to  be  brought  there  at  so 
much  less  expense,  and  the  gold  product  sent  to  market  at  so 
much  cheaper  rates,  that  hydraulic  mining  on  a most  extensive 
scale  is  to  be  resorted  to  in  all  the  best  placers.  The  total  product 
of  gold  from  placer  mining  in  the  Territory  has  been  variously 
estimated  at  from  $120,000,000  to  $140,000,000.  It  is  difficult 
to  determine  the  exact  amount,  as  the  returns  of  the  placers  and 
the  quartz  veins  or  lodes  have  not  in  all  cases  been  kept  separate. 
It  is  probably  not  less  than  $125,000,000. 

Quartz  mining  for  gold  began  in  Montana  almost  simultane- 


QUARTZ  MINING  IN  MONTANA. 


349 

ously  with  that  of  the  placers.  The  first  lode  located  was  discov- 
ered near  Bannock,  in  Beaverhead  county,  in  1862,  and  the  mine 
was  called  the  Dakota.  Mr.  Warner,  in  his  “History  and  Di- 
rectory of  Montana,”  says  that  the  decomposed  quartz  found 
near  the  surface  of  this  vein  was  taken  down  the  hill  on  which  it 
was  situated,  to  the  creek,  on  pack  animals,  and  the  gold  was 
there  washed  out.  In  the  spring  of  1863  a small  water-mill  for 
crushing  this  quartz  was  completed.  The  stamps  were  made  of 
old  wagon-wheel  tires  welded  together  and  had  wooden  stems. 
Other  mills  were  subsequently  erected,  and  gold  in  small  quan- 
tities has  been  taken  from  this  and  other  mines  in  the  vicinity 
almost  ever  since.  Gold  quartz  ledges  were  discovered  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  many  other  placer  mines,  and  the  ores  have  been  worked 
on  a small  scale  in  different  parts  of  the  Territory.  A few  of  the 
lodes  have  produced  large  quantities  of  bullion.  The  chief  ob- 
stacles to  the  development  of  the  gold  quartz  mines  of  Montana 
have  been  lack  of  capital,  bad  management  due  to  want  of  expe- 
rienced superintendents,  and  the  enormous  cost  of  machinery. 
When  freights  from  Chicago  or  St.  Louis  were  never  lower  than 
five  cents,  and  frequently  as  high  as  ten,  twelve  or  fifteen  cents  a 
pound,  it  cost  two  or  three  times  as  much  to  bring  machinery  into 
Montana  as  was  paid  for  it  at  the  place  where  it  was  manufac- 
tured, and  a man  not  only  had  to  have  a good  mine  but  consid- 
erable ready  capital  in  order  to  be  able  to  develop  it  and  bring 
it  into  a paying  condition.  Some  of  the  most  promising  gold 
mining  enterprises  in  this  Territory  have  also  failed  on  account 
of  ignorance  or  extravagance  in  their  management,  and  these 
failures  have  deterred  capitalists,  who  at  best  were  timid  about 
investing  their  money  in  a country  so  difficult  of  access,  from 
becoming  interested  even  in  the  good  properties. 

The  principal  mines  of  gold  in  quartz  lodes  are  almost  as 
numerous  as  the  placers.  After  the  Dakota,  which  still  yields  a 
fair  amount,  are  the  Union  lode  and  others  in  Lewis  and  Clarke 
county,  which  have  yielded  about  ^3,000,000;  the  Atlantic  Cable 
lode,  in  Deer  Lodge  county,  a very  rich  mine  ; while  there  are 
mines  which  have  paid  well  for  a number  of  years  at  Unionville 
and  the  Park,  four  miles  from  Helena,  at  Silver  Star,  Summit, 


^5o  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

o 

Alder,  Meadow  Creek,  Iron  Rod,  Bannock,  Radersburg-,  Pony, 
Boulder  and  Highland.  But  the  richest  quartz  gold  mines  in 
Montana  are  those  of  the  Stemple  District,  fifteen  to  twenty 
miles  northwest  of  Helena.  The  famous  Penobscot  and  other 
extensions  of  the  Snow  Drift  lode  are  probably  the  most  valuable 
gold  quartz  mines  in  the  world.  Mr.  Nathan  S.  Vestel  first  de- 
veloped the  Penobscot  mine,  which  is  on  the  summit  of  the  main 
range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  His  first  efforts  in  1877  did  not 
meet  with  much  encouragement,  and  late  in  the  year  he  found 
himself  $7,000  in  debt  and  in  doubt  where  he  could  obtain  the 
means  of  payment.  But  the  three  shafts  he  had  sunk  on  the 
Penobscot  claim  began  to  show  good  results,  and  the  first  clean- 
ups from  a little  five  stamp  mill,  which  had  been  brought  there, 
gave  him  $20,000,  with  which  he  paid  his  debts  and  had  $13,000 
over.  The  yield  now  increased  rapidly,  some  of  the  ore  yielding 
$1,000  in  gold  to  the  ton,  and  the  average  being  more  than  $100 
to  the  ton  aside  from  the  waste,  which  was  considerable,  as  it  was 
in  very  fine  particles.  In  the  summer  of  1878  he  sold  the  mine 
to  Mr.  William  B.  Frue,  of  Detroit,  on  terms  from  which  he  re- 
alized $350,000.  It  has  proved  a very  profitable  investment, 
yielding  about  $23,000  a month.  Mr.  Vestel  immediately  com- 
menced developing  another  mine,  900  feet  below  the  Penobscot^ 
which  is  yielding  about  $12,000  a month.  It  is  called  the  Bel- 
mont. Other  mines  of  this  district  and  vicinity  are  the  Blue 
Bird,  Whip-poor-will,  Black  Hawk,  Viola,  Grey  Eagle,  Emma 
Miller,  Mount  Pleasant,  Green  Northern  Light,  Piegan,  Humbug 
and  Long  Tom.  These  are  all  paying  largely.  The  gold  quartz 
mines  have  yielded  since  1864  over  $20,000,000 ; of  the  $162,- 
000,000  of  the  precious  metals  sent  to  market  to  the  end  of  1879, 
about  $145,000,000  are  gold  and  the  remainder  silver. 

The  silver  ores  of  Montana  are  mostly  refractory,  and  have 
proved  difficult  of  reduction,  and  in  the  past  would  only  pay 
when  they  were  very  rich.  Now  the  machinery,  and  concen- 
trating, stamping,  smelting,  wasting,  chlorodizing,  amalgamating 
and  leaching  works  are  all  in  the  Territory  and  easily  accessible  by 
railway,  and  the  silver  ores,  which  are,  many  of  them,  very  rich, 
will  yield  great  profits  to  the  mine-owners  and  ore.  reducers. 


SILVER  MINING  IN  MONTANA.  ^51 

The  most  important  of  these  works  are  those  of  the  Alta  Mon- 
tana Company,  which  owns  several  mines  also,  at  Wickes,  about 
twenty-five  or  thirty  miles  southwest  of  Helena,  and  about  mid- 
way between  the  Utah  and  Northern  Railroad  and  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Division  of  the  Northern  Pacific.  When  these  works 
were  first  established  they  proved  a failure,  but  they  have  now 
been  taken  up  by  an  enterprising  company  from  the  East,  with 
large  capital,  and  are  achieving  a grand  success.  The  Colorado 
and  Boulder  Districts  have  a large  number  of  silver  mines,  with 
very  rich  lodes,  many  of  which  will  contribute  to  the  supply  of 
ores  to  be  reduced  at  Wickes.  Another  extensive  silver  lode, 
the  earliest  one  discovered  in  Montana,  is  in  the  district  of  Phil- 
lipsburg,  in  Deer  Lodge  county,  nearly  loo  miles  west-southwest 
of  Helena,  in  the  elevated  valley  between  the  main  Rocky  Moun> 
tain  chain — the  “Great  Divide” — and  the  Bitter  Root  Moun- 
tains. This  is  on  the  surveyed  route  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
Division  of  the  Northern  Pacific.  The  Speckled  Trout,  the 
Algonquin  and  the  Hope  mine  are  the  largest  and  most  promising 
mines  in  this  district.  These  have  yielded  somewhat  largely  of 
argentiferous  galena,  with  considerable  sulphur  and  other  com- 
binations. The  yield  is  from  seventy-five  to  ninety  ounces  of 
silver  to  the  ton.  Owing  to  heavy  expenses,  these  mines  have 
not  proved  very  profitable  till  recently.  But  the  most  remark- 
able of  all  the  mining  districts  is  Butte  and  its  vicinity,  also  in 
Deer  JLodge  county,  but  east  of  the  Great  Divide.  The  silver 
ores  were  first  discovered  in  1864  (or  perhaps  earlier),  but  the 
working  of  them  could  not  be  made  profitable  on  account  of  their 
refractory  nature  and  the  great  cost  of  transportation.  They 
again  attracted  attention  in  1874-5,  Butte  City  has  a popu- 
lation of  about  3,500,  and  in  its  immediate  vicinity  are  twenty  or 
more  mines,  all  yielding  well.  The  ores  are  of  different  kinds, 
and  require  different  processes  for  their  reduction.  There  is  a 
silver-gold  belt,  with  no  copper,  but  some  galena  and  oxide  and 
carbonate  of  manganese.  Above  the  water-line  this  is  free  mill- 
ing, and  can  be  reduced  with  a moderate  amount  of  labor.  Below 
the  water-line  it  is  baseband  requires  chlorodization  and  roasting 
for  its  reduction.  The  silver  predominates,  but  there  is  a small 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


352 

amount  of  gold  mixed  with  it.  The  yield  ranges  from  twenty-five 
to  one  hundred  and  eighty  ounces  of  silver  to  the  ton.  One  mile 
east  of  this  is  a belt  of  copper  ore  of  great  richness,  but  containing 
some  arsenic.  The  yield  is  about  400  pounds  to  the  ton.  In  a 
contrary  direction,  a mile  and  a half  west  of  the  silver-gold  belt, 
just  beyond  the  Butte,  is  an  extensive  lode  of  chloride  of  silver,  on 
which  several  mines  have  been  opened,  but  though  apparently 
very  rich,  it  has  not  yet  been  largely  developed.  There  are  now 
extensive  reverberatory  furnaces  for  smelting  these  ores,  and 
when  reduced  to  a matte  carrying  from  600  to  900  ounces  of 
silver  to  the  ton,  they  are  sent  to  Denver  to  be  parted.  Most 
of  the  mines  are  what  are  known  as  surface  mines  ; that  is,  they 
do  not  penetrate  below  the  water-line.  Indeed,  it  was  found  that 
the  ores  rapidly  depreciated  in  quality  as  they  approached  this 
line.  The  owners  of  the  Alice  mine,  one  of  the  best  of  the  sur- 
face mines,  had  the  courage,  against  the  opinion  of  all  the  other 
miners,  to  go  below  the  water-line,  and,  following  the  vein,  to 
ascertain  whether  it  would  not  improve  as  they  reached  deeper 
levels.  They  have  expended  ^600,000  on  this  experiment,  all 
of  which,  however,  had  been  made  out  of  the  mine,  and  at  300 
feet  depth  found  the  ore  much  better,  and  at  400  and  500  feet 
they  were  richer  than  at  the  surface.  Encouraged  by  this  they 
have  proceeded  to  strike  the  vein  at  a depth  of  800  feet.  The 
silver  deposits  at  Butte  are  believed  to  be  more  extensive  than 
any  yet  discovered  in  Montana.  The  production  of  silver  and 
gold  at  this  camp  to  September,  1880,  had  been  somewhat  more 
than  ^4,000,000,  and  is  likely  to  be  largely  increased. 

Glendale  and  the  Trapper  district,  situated  in  and  around  the 
Trapper  Creek  Canon,  in  Beaverhead  county,  but  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  “Great  Divide,”  has  come  into  notice  within  the  last 
four  years,  and  is  regarded  by  Mr.  Z.  L.  White  as  one  of  the 
two  successful  silver  camps  of  the  Territory,  Butte  being  the 
other.  The  mines  which  have  proved  most  profitable  are  on 
White  Lion  Mountain,  about  9,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  ore 
is  found  in  a wide  belt  of  dolomite  or  soft  white  limestone,  lying 
between  two  limestone  strata  of  a much  harder  texture.  The 
bulk  of  the  ore  in  these  mines  is  decomposed,  earthy,  and  easily 


PROBABLE  EXTENSION  OE  MINING  DISTRICTS.  353 

mined  with  pick  and  spade.  It  consists  of  silver,  copper,  sulphur, 
lead,  arsenic,  antimony,  aluminum  and  silica,  with  occasionally  a 
little  undecomposed  galena.  It  yields  on  an  average  from  eighty 
to  one  hundred  and  twenty  ounces  of  silver  to  a ton. 

There  are  several  copper  mines  in  the  Territory,  one  large 
deposit  of  copper  ores  being  at  Copperopolis,  on  the  head  waters 
of  the  Musselshell  river.  There  is  also  a beginning  of  iron 
mining  in  the  Territory.  Coal  mining  is  becoming  a profitable 
pursuit  along  the  Missouri  and  Yellowstone  Divisions  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad.  The  mining  products  of  Montana 
in  1879  were  about  $10,000,000 — an  amount  which  will  soon  be 
doubled. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  all  the  vein  and  lode  mining,  whether 
of  gold  or  silver,  has  been  confined  to  the  southwestern  section 
of  Montana,  a region  lying  west  of  a line  drawn  southward  from 
the  junction  of  the  Dearborn  river  and  the  Missouri,  and  striking 
the  Yellowstone  at  or  near  Fort  Ellis,  thence  along  the  Yellow- 
stone to  the  Yellowstone  National  Park.  It  comprises  both 
slopes  of  the  “Great  Divide,”  extends  across  the  valleys  beyond, 
and  includes  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains. 
That  this  is  not  the  only  part  of  the  Territory  which  contains 
gold  deposits  appears  from  the  fact  that  rich  placers  have  been 
found  in  Missoula  county,  northwest  175  miles  or  more  from 
Helena,  and  east  and  northeast  of  the  Missouri  river  as  far  as 
the  slopes  of  the  Bear’s  Paw  Mountains,  northeast  of  Fort  Ben- 
ton ; and  where  there  are  placers  the  gold  and  silver  lodes  are 
not  far  off  We  may  look  confidently  for  further  discoveries  of 
both  gold  and  silver  in  the  detached  and  isolated  mountains  of 
the  Territory,  and  very  possibly  extensive  gold  lodes  in  the 
Powder  river  range,  in  the  southeast  of  the  Territory,  that  range 
having  strong  geological  affinities  with  the  Black  Hills.  There 
have  been  some  gold  and  silver  lodes  of  rich  promise  recently 
discovered  on  Clarke’s  fork  of  the  Yellowstone,  about  the  middle 
of  the  Crow  Indian  reservation,  and  negotiations  are  now  in 
progress  with  the  Crows  to  cede  this  part  of  their  reservation. 

Agricultural  Productions. — Writers  on  Montana  have  gener- 
ally estimated  its  arable  lands  at  1 5,000,000,  or  at  the  utmost 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


3^4 

16,000,000  acres  ; but  the  recent  reports  of  the  Surveyor-General 
of  the  Territory,  and  of  the  missionaries  and  travellers  who  have 
been  up  the  valley  of  the  Yellowstone  and  through  Eastern  Mon- 
tana indicate  that  there  are  millions  of  acres  which,  with  moder- 
ate irrigation,  for  which  the  facilities  are  abundant,  will  yield 
immense  crops,  and  in  fact  a part  are  already  yielding  crops 
which  astonish  all  beholders.  Of  the  agricultural  productions  of 
the  valleys  and  benches  of  Western  Montana,  the  affluents  of 
Clarke’s  fork  of  Columbia  river,  of  the  Jefferson,  Madison  and 
Gallatin,  and  of  the  Yellowstone  and  the  upper  Missouri,  we  will 
let  Mr.  Zimri  L.  White,  the  cautious  and  able  correspondent  of 
the  New  Yoj^k  Tribun,e,  tell  us : 

“The  agricultural  lands  of  Montana  are  the  valleys.  The 
main  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  extends  through  the  Terri- 
tory generally  in  a northerly  and  southerly  direction,  and  from 
this  there  are  spurs  and  auxiliary  ranges  extending  in  all  direc- 
tions and  covering  nearly  the  whole  face  of  the  country  except 
in  the  north  and  east,  where  there  are  extensive  elevated  plains. 
Between  these  ranges  flow  hundreds  of  beautiful  dear-water 
streams,  some  large  and  some  small,  and  bordering  these  rivers 
and  creeks  are  fine  rich  valleys  from  one  to  ten  or  twenty  miles 
in  width.  The  soil  in  the  valleys  is  an  alluvial  deposit,  and  the 
land  generally  has  a gentle  and  regular  slope  from  the  bed  of 
the  stream  to  the  foot  of  the  bench  which  separates  the  valley 
from  the  foot-hills.  So  true  is  this  slope  that  in  almost  every  in- 
stance water  taken  out  in  a ditch  parallel  with  the  stream  can  be 
made  to  flow  over  every  foot  of  land  below  it.  The  benches,  of 
which  there  are  sometimes  several  and  sometimes  only  one,  are 
simply  continuations  of  the  valley  at  a higher  elevation.  They 
frequently  look  like  great  terraces  rising  one  above  the  other,  and 
where  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  stream  and  the  fall  are  sufficient 
to  make  irrigation  possible,  the  bench  lands  are  found  to  be  equally 
productive  with  the  valleys  proper.  Behind  the  benches  rise  the 
foothills,  with  their  rounded,  grass-clad  tops,  now  extended  for 
miles  and  forming  the  divide  between  two  streams,  and  again 
seeming  to  support  a rocky,  precipitous  ridge  that  rises  beyond 
them. 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


355 


Manufactures. — Montana  is  too  new  a country  and  has  too 
small  a population  to  have  any  very  extensive  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments. There  are  stamping,  smelting  and  other  reduction 
mills. at  Helena,  Bozeman,  Wickes,  Butte  City,  Virginia  City  and 
other  points  in  the  Territory;  saw-mills  and  flouring-mills  at  sev- 
eral of  the  larger  towns,  and  the  usual  run  of  small  manufactories 
in  most  of  these  places.  Probably  twelve  or  fifteen  million  dollars 
would  cover  the  products  of  all  the  manufacturing  establishments 
yet  in  existence. 

Objects  of  Interest. — About  one-tenth  of  the  Yellowstone  Na- 
tional Park  is  within  the  bounds  of  Montana;  but  as  nearly 
seven-eighths  of  this  great  wonder  of  the  world  belongs  to  Wy- 
oming, we  reserve  our  description  of  it  for  that  Territory.  But 
it  is  not  the  Yellowstone  Park  alone  which  attracts  the  attention 
of  the  tourist.  The  whole  valley  of  the  Madison  river,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  Upper  Yellowstone,  is  full  of  wonders,  and  the  valley 
of  the  Upper  Missouri  and  the  northern  portion  of  the  valley  of 
Clarke’s  fork  of  the  Columbia  river.  In  the  Madison  and  the 
Yellowstone,  canon  succeeds  canon,  and  wild,  rocky  waterfalls  are 
too  lofty  to  be  run  by  any  boat,  and  within  such  narrow  bounds 
that  there  is  no  passage  there  for  any  human  being,  and  they  can 
only  be  viewed  from  above.  One  of  these  canons  in  the  Madison 
is  fifteen  miles  in  length,  and  its  walls  are  from  600  to  900  feet 
in  height,  while  the  water  leaps  over  a succession  of  rapids  and 
falls.  No  human  being  has  ever  passed  through  it.  Not  far  off 
are  beautiful  crystal  lakes,  which  attract  great  numbers  in  the 
season.  The  geyser  formation  extends  over  all  this  region,  and 
among  the  most  remarkable  examples  of  it  are  the  Deer  Lodge 
Mineral  Springs,  eighteen  miles  north  of  Deer  Lodge,  some  of 
which  are  really  geysers,  while  others  have  formed  cones  of  their 
deposits  thirty  feet  in  height  and  fifty  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base, 
from  the  apex  of  which  flows  a large  warm  spring.  This  is  sur- 
rounded by  forty  other  springs,  ranging  in  temperature  from  115° 
to  150°.  The  canons  and  falls  on  the  Upper  Missouri  are  very 
beaufiful  and  grand.  We  can  only  name  “The  Gate  of  the 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


356 

Mountains”  and  the  “Great  Falls,”  eighteen  miles  north  of 
Helena,  “Atlantic  Canon,”  “ The  Bear’s  Tooth,”  “ The  Mysterious 
Thunder,”  supposed  to  be  caused  by  hidden  geysers  in  the  moun- 
tains, “The  Devil’s  Slide”  and  “The  Devil’s  Watch-Tower ; ” 
and  in  the  northwest,  the  Flathead  Lake  Region  with  its  Twin 
Cascades. 

hidian  Resei^vations  and  Popidation.^Th^  Territory  was  re- 
garded as  the  best  place  to  which  to  banish  the  Blackfeet,  Crows, 
Assiniboines,  Gros  Ventres  and  Yanktonnais,  after  the  terror  in- 
spired among  the  settlers  by  the  terrible  massacres  in  Minnesota 
in  1862-3,  had  made  their  longer  stay  in  a new  and  rapidly  grow- 
ing State  intolerable  and  impossible,  and  so  they  were  removed 
to  immense  reservations  north  of  the  Missouri  river  and  south  of 
the  Yellowstone,  in  1867  and  1868,  in  the  expectation  that  there 
they  would  be  able  to  remain  without  molestation.  .Little  did 
the  Indian  Office  then  dream  that  within  ten  or  twelve  years  this 
very  region  would  be  found  to  be  the  garden  spot  of  American 
ao'riculture,  and  that  mines  of  fabulous  wealth  would  be  discovered 
among  the  mountains  which  then  seemed  to  be  so  forbidding. 
But  so  it  was ; and  when,  a year  or  two  later,  the  Flatheads,  Pend 
d’Oreilles  and  Kootenais  were  in  need  of  a home,  one  was  as- 
signed to  them  also  within  the  limits  of  Montana.  The  United 
States  government  was  lavish  in  its  gifts  of  land  to  these  tribes 
— 34,156,800  acres,  or  the  whole  area  of  the  Territory,  was 

made  over  to  them,  including  nearly  all  the  land  north  of,  and 
more  than  one-half  of  the  region  south  of  the  Yellowstone,  ex- 
tending to  the  Wyoming  border.  The  land  north  of  the  Mis- 
souri, though  some  of  it  unfit  for  cultivation,  is  for  the  most  part 
good  grazing  land,  and  the  mountain  slopes  and  river  bottoms 
contain  gold  lodes  and  extensive  placers ; but  the  region  south 
of  the  Yellowstone  is  the  garden  of  the  Territory  for  productive- 
ness, and  contains  also  extensive  lodes  of  silver  and  gold,  espe- 
cially on  Clarke’s  fork  of  the  Yellowstone,  Rosebud  creek,  and 
the  Upper  Yellowstone  itself  At  and  around  the  five  agen- 
cies on  these  reservations,  viz. : the  Blackfeet  Agency,  Crow 
Agency,  Plathead  Agency,  F'ort  Peck  Agency,  and  Fort  Belknap 


INDIAN  DESEDVAT/ONS. 


3^7 

Agency,  there  are  congregated  21,670  Indians,  of  whom  3,470 
are  Crow  Indians,  occupying  the  reservation  south  of  the  Yellow- 
stone ; 16,842  Blackfeet,  Assinaboines  and  other  Sioux  bands,  and 
1,338  Flatheads  and  other  Pacific  tribes.  Of  the  whole  number 
only  1,531,  about  seven  per  cent.,  can  be  called  civilized,  so  far  as 
the  assumption  of  citizen’s  dress  is  concerned,  and  but  475  male 
Indians  were  engaged  in  civilized  pursuits.  The  absurdity  of 
giving  such  a vast  tract  to  these  vagrant  and  barbarous  tribes 
will  be  appreciated  if  we  notice  that  they  are  allowed  over  1,700 
acres  to  every  Indian,  man,  woman  or  child.  Now  that  the  buffalo 
is  so  rapidly  disappearing  that  it  has  already  ceased  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  continent  to  be  the  dependence  of  the  Indian  tribes 
for  game  and  for  its  peltries,  it  is  well  worth  while  to  inquire 
whether  some  occupation  cannot  be  devised  for  the  Indian  which 
shall  enable  him  to  do  something  towards  earning  his  own  liveli- 
hood without  occupying,  or,  rather,  withholding  from  occupation 
by  others,  a Territory  as  large  as  the  State  of  Illinois.  We 
would  not  have  the  Indian  wronged,  but  the  lands  of  the  earth 
are  too  precious  to  be  held  by  those  who  cannot  and  will  not 
cultivate  or  use  them  for  human  subsistence,  and  will  not  allow 
others  to  do  so. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
NEBRASKA. 


Nebraska,  one  of  the  States  of  the  central  belt  of  “Our  West- 
ern Empire,”  lying  between  the  parallels  of  40°  and  43°  north 
latitude,  and  between  95°  20'  and  104°  of  west  longitude  from 
Greenwich.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Dakota  ; on  the  east 
by  the  Missouri  river,  which  separates  it  from  Iowa  and  Mis- 
souri ; on  the  south  by  Kansas  and  Colorado,  and  on  the  west  by 
Colorado  and  Wyoming.  Its  area,  according  to  die  United 
States  Land  Office,  is  75,995  square  miles,  or  48,636,800  acres. 
Its  greatest  length  from  east  to  west  is  412  miles,  and  its  breadth 


SURFACE  OF  THE  COUNTRY. 


358 

from  north  to  south  208  miles.  It  is  larger  than  all  New  Eng- 
land and  New  Jersey,  and  as  large  as  Ohio  and  Indiana  together. 
The  Missouri  river  not  only  forms  its  entire  eastern  boundary, 
but  in  conjunction  with  the  Niobrara,  one  of  its  larger  tributaries, 
and  the  Keya  Paha,  an  affluent  of  that  stream,  gives  a riverine 
boundary  to  nearly  one-half  of  its  northern  border. 

Sm^face  of  the  Country — Gradual  Descent  from  West  to  East — 
Rivers,  Bluffs,  Hills,  Valleys. — The  State  is  called  prairie.  So  it 
is,  in  the  sense  of  the  word  which  means  meadow ; but  not  in 
that  secondary  sense  which  implies  a land  of  uniform  flatness. 
In  real  truth,  Nebraska  is  a part  of  the  lowest  eastern  grass- 
elothed  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  eye  alone  will  make 
no  observer  aware  of  this  fact.  Nevertheless,  from  the  eastern 
to  the  western  boundary  of  Nebraska,  there  is  a gradual  and  un- 
interrupted rise  of  the  land  of  about  seven  feet  to  the  mile  in 
Eastern  Nebraska,  and  from  that  to  ten  feet  in  the  west;  and  thus 
it  is  that  while  the  land  on  the  eastern  boundary  is  910  feet 
above  sea-level,  on  the  western  boundary  it  is  about  5,000.  The 
surface  form  of  the  State  is,  of  course,  made  by  the  rivers.  The 
eastern  front  of  the  country  shows  bold,  wooded  bluffs  to  the 
Missouri,  their  outlines  being  cut  and  scarped  into  fantastic  and 
picturesque  forms  by  the  washing  water.  West  of  the  Missouri 
bluffs,  except  on  the  table  lands,  there  is  no  flat,  but  a land  of 
many  changing  forms — now  broad  bottoms,  bounded  by  low 
hills  ; now  picturesque  bluffs,  and,  especially  in  the  grazing  re- 
gion, ravines  sometimes  as  rugged  as  the  gulches  in  the  gold 
fields.  In  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State,  in  the  region  lying 
between  the  sources  of  the  Middle  Loup  fork  and  the  Niobrara 
river,  there  are  extensive  sand  hills,  and  those  clay  deposits,  cut 
into  the  most  fantastic  forms  by  the  erosion  of  the  mountain 
streams.  These  are  the  “ Nebraska  Bad  Lands,”  and  are  con- 
nected, both  geologically  and  geographically,  with  the  Dakota 
Bad  Lands,”  on  and  near  the  White  Earth  river,  and  between 
that  river  and  the  Big  Cheyenne. 

These  “Bad  Lands”  are  uninhabitable,  but  they  are  very  in- 
teresting for  their  fossils,  of  which  we  shall  have  more  to  say 
under  the  Geology  of  Nebraska, 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


3^9 

Now  and  again  a river  flows  full  to  the  bank,  from  which  the 
bottom — from  a mile  to  four  or  more  miles  wide — spreads  out 
on  either  hand ; but  generally  the  streams  run  in  deep  beds,  the 
high,  steep  banks  and  the  narrow  first  bench  being  thickly 
clothed  with  timber.  The  general  ascending  lay  of  the  land  is 
broken  from  west  to  east  by  three  main  drainage  channels.  On 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  State  are  the  Niobrara  and  the 
Missouri  rivers,  of  which  latter  the  Niobrara  is  an  affluent. 

The  Niobrara  has  many  tributaries,  some  of  them  of  consider- 
able size  ; and  several  of  them,  as  their  names  imply,  have  many 
rapids  and  waterfalls.*  The  Platte,  a winding,  shallow,  spreading 
stream,  has  the  sources  of  both  of  its  main  streams,  the  North 
and  South  forks  of  the  Platte,  far  up  the  main  range  or  Great 
Divide  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  Central  Colorado ; the  North 
fork  also  traversing  a great  extent  of  territory  in  Wyoming ; 
both  forks  cross  Nebraska  from  west  to  east  to  their  point  of 
junction  at  North  Platte.  Before  the  division,  the  Platte  river 
receives  two  large  tributaries,  the  Loup  Fork  river,  which,  with 
its  three  branches.  North,  Middle  and  South,  traverses  a large 
territory,  and  the  Elkhorn,  which  drains  Northeastern  Nebraska. 
On  the  south  bank,  neither  the  Platte  nor  the  North  Platte  re- 
ceive any  considerable  streams.  The  South  Platte  receives  on 
its  north  bank  Lodge  Pole  creek,  in  the  valley  of  which  the  Union 
Pacific  road  is  constructed  for  1 50  miles.  From  fifty  to  eighty  miles 
south  of  the  Platte,  the  Republican  river,  the  largest  tributary  of 
the  Kaw  or  Kansas  river,  having  its  sources  in  Eastern  Colorado, 
traverses  the  southern  and  southwestern  counties  of  the  State, 
receiving  three  large  affluents.  Medicine  Lake  creek.  White 
Man’s  fork  and  Rock  creek,  on  its  northern  bank,  and  an  infini- 
tude of  small  streams  on  both  banks.  Other  smaller  but  consid- 
erable tributaries  of  the  Kansas  drain  the  southeast  of  the  State. 
The  general  direction  and  flow  of  all  these  rivers  is  to  the  south- 
east. In  their  gradual  descent  from  the  lofty  plateau  at  the  west 
of  the  State,  the  rivers  and  streams,  in  seeking  the  lowest  level. 


* Eau  qui  Court — “ the  water  that  leaps  ” — Mini  Chadusa,  or  Rapid  creek,  Antelope  creek, 
the  Rapid  river,  are  a few  of  the  names  of  these  affluents. 


^60  TOPOGJ^APHY  AND  GEOLOGY  OF  NEBRASKA. 

have  cut  their  way  through  the  soft  and  easily  eroded  deposits, 
and  have  worn  away  their  banks  to  such  a degree  as  to  give  the 
appearance  of  high  bluffs  along  their  banks,  when  in  reality  no 
such  bluffs  exist;  but  the  stream  has  eroded  for  itself  a channel 
at  a lower  level  than  that  of  the  surrounding  country.  Such  is 
the  topography  of  Nebraska  in  barest  outline ; and,  with  the  map 
before  him,  the  reader  can  fill  in  the  details.  He  can  imagine  the 
great  plain  ascending  to  higher  altitudes  as  the  mountains  are 
approached ; the  rivers,  west  to  east,  making  three  great  valleys, 
and  two  elevated  divides  separating  the  valleys ; and,  finally,  the 
smaller  streams  exhibiting  the  land  as  broken  into  an  almost 
infinite  number  of  gently  undulating  hills  and  valleys — with  great 
table  lands  on  the  summits — the  trend  of  which  is  southeast. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — The  geological  structure  of  the 
State  is  very  simple.  In  the  southeast  a triangular  tract,  extend- 
ing west  as  far  as  where  the  Little  Blue  river  crosses  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  State,  and  having  the  apex  of  the  triangle  at  the 
point  where  the  forty-second  parallel  of  latitude  intersects  the 
Missouri  river,  is  distinctly  identified  with  the  upper  carboniferous 
formation.  It  is  covered  to  a depth  of  from  thirty  to  ninety  feet 
by  a yellowish  marl  (the  loess  or  surface  deposit  described  by 
Professor  Hayden),  but  the  rocks  below  belong  to  the  coal 
measures.  There  are  thin  strata  of  coal  of  good  quality,  but 
ranging  in  thickness  from  five  to  twenty-two  inches — not  suffi- 
ciently thick  to  pay  for  expensive  mining,  while  clays,  limestones 
and  sandstones  belonging  to  the  carboniferous  era  make  up  the 
remaining  thickness  of  the  coal  measures,  which  aggregate  120 
feet  or  more.  The  geologists  believe  this  deposit  to  be  the  west- 
'ern  rim  or  margin  of  the  great  coal  basin  of  Missouri  and  Iowa, 
and  think  that  on  this  border  or  rim  the  coal  has  been  subjected 
to  such  pressure  that 'it  will  be  found  too  thin  for  profitable 
mining.  West  of  these  coal  mea.:ures  is  a narrow  belt  of  Permian 
rocks,  and  to  this  succeed  the  cretaceous  deposits,  having  a 
breadth  of  seventy  or  eighty  miles.  West  of  this  the  whole  sur- 
face rocks  and  soil  of  the  State  belong  to  the  tertiary  period.  In 
the  southwest  the  tertiary  formation  has  large  deposits  of  lignite 
of  excellent  quality,  which  will  probably  supply  a large  portion 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  361 

of  the  demand  of  the  State  for  coal.  Of  the  loess  or  yellowish 
marl  which  forms  the  superficial  deposit  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  State,  we  may  remark,  that  this  deposit,  which  is  quaternary 
rather  than  tertiary,  is  supposed  to  be  the  sediment  deposited 
by  the  great  lakes,  one  of  them  in  Nebraska  and  Iowa  being  esti- 
mated as  500  miles  long,  and  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  miles  wide, 
which  covered  this  whole  region  after  the  close  of  the  last  glacial 
period.  Into  and  through  the  greatest  of  these  lakes  the  Mis- 
souri, then,  as  now,  the  muddiest  of  rivers,  poured  its  vast  flood 
of  yellow  waters.  As  the  land  gradually  rose,  this  immense 
lake  drained  off  its  surplus  water  through  the  Missouri  river, 
became  a vast  marsh,  and  eventually,  as  the  rivers  cut  deeper 
and  deeper  through  this  loess  deposit,  the  land  became  dry  and 
solid.  Of  this  loess,  Professor  Aughey,  the  State  Geologist, 
says : 

“ The  loess  deposit  is  in  some  respects  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able in  the  world.  Its  value  for  agricultural  purposes  is  not  ex- 
ceeded anywhere.  It  prevails  over  at  least  three-fourths  of  the 
surface  of  Nebraska.  It  ranges  in  thickness  from  five  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet.  Some  sections  of  it  in  Dakota  county 
measure  over  200  feet.  At  North  Platte,  300  miles  west  of 
Omaha,  and  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  some  of  the  sections 
that  I measured  ranged  in  thickness  from  i 25  to  150  feet.  From. 
Crete,  on  the  Burlington  and  Missouri  River  Railroad,  west  to 
Kearney,  on  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  its  thickness  for  ninety 
miles  ranges  from  forty  to  ninety  feet.  South  of  Kearney,  and 
for  a great  distance  west,  along  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  as  far 
as  to  the  Republican,  there  is  a great  expanse  of  territory,  covered 
by  a great  thickness  of  this  deposit.  I measured  many  sections 
in  wells  over  this  region,  and  seldom  found  it  less  than  forty,  and 
often  more  than  sixty  feet  in  thickness.  Along  the  Republican, 
I traced  the  formation  almost  to  the  western  line  of  the  State,  its 
thickness  ranging  from  thirty  to  seventy  feet.  One  section  north 
of  Kearney,  on  Wood  river,  showed  a thickness  of  fifty  feet.  The 
same  variation  in  thickness  is  found  in  the  counties  bordering  on 
the  Missouri.  One  peculiarity  of  this  deposit  is  that  it  is  almost 
perfectly  homogeneous  throughout,  and  of  almost  uniform  color. 


THE  LOESS  DEPOSIT. 


362 

however  thick  the  deposit  or  far  apart  the  specimens  have  been 
taken.  I have  compared  many  specimens  taken  300  miles  apart, 
and  from  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  deposits,  and  no  difference 
could  be  detected  by  the  eye  or  by  chemical  analysis. 

“ The  physical  properties  of  the  loess  deposits  are  also  remark- 
able. In  the  interior,  away  from  Missouri,  hundreds  of  miles  of 
these  loess  deposits  are  almost  level  or  gently  rolling.  Not  un- 
frequently  a region  will  be  reached  where,  for  a few  miles,  the 
country  is  bluffy  or  hilly,  and  then  as  much  almost  entirely  level, 
with  intermediate  forms.  The  bluffs  that  border  the  flood-plains 
of  the  Missouri,  the  Lower  Platte  and  some  other  streams,  are 
sometimes  gently  rounded  off  They  often  assume  fantastic 
forms,  as  if  carved  by  some  curious  generations  of  the  past.  But 
now  they  retain  their  forms  so  unchanged  from  year  to  year, 
affected  neither  by  rain  nor  frost,  that  they  must  have  been 
molded  into  their  present  outlines  under  circumstances  of  climate 
and  level  very  different  from  that  which  now  prevails.  For  all 
purposes  of  architecture  this  soil,  even  for  the  most  massive 
structures,  is  perfectly  secure.  On  no  other  deposits,  except  the 
solid  rocks,  are  there  such  excellent  roads.  From  twelve  to 
twenty-four  hours  after  the  heaviest  rains,  the  roads  are  perfectly 
dry,  and  often  appear,  after  being  travelled  a few  days,  like  a 
vast  floor  formed  from  cement,  and  by  the  highest  art  of  man. 
Yet  the  soil  is  very  easily  worked,  yielding  readily  to  the  spade  or 
the  plow.  Excavation  is  remarkably  easy,  and  no  pick  or  mat- 
tock is  thought  of  for  such  purposes.  It  might  be  expected  that 
such  a soil  would  readily  yield  to  atmospheric  influences,  but  such 
is  not  the  case.  Wells  in  this  deposit  are  frequently  walled  up 
only  to  a point  above  the  water-line ; and  on  the  remainder  the 
spade-marks  will  be  visible  for  years.  These  peculiarities  of  the 
loess  deposits  are  chiefly  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  carbonate  of 
lime  has  entered  into  slight  chemical  combination  with  the  finely 
comminuted  silica.  There  is  always  more  or  less  carbonic  acid 
in  the  atmosphere  which  is  brought  down  by  the  rains,  and  this 
dissolves  the  carbonate  of  lime,  which  then  readily  unites  with 
the  silica,  but  only  to  a slight  extent,  and  not  enough  to  destroy 
its  porosity.  Though  much  of  the  silica  is  microscopically  minute, 
64 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


363 

it  has  largely  preserved  its  angular  structure,  and  this  of  course 
aids  the  slight  chemical  union  that  takes  place  between  it  and  the 
carbonate  of  lime.  Had  there  been  more  lime  and  iron  in  this 
deposit,  and  had  it  been  subjected  to  a greater  and  longer 
pressure  from  superincumbent  waters,  instead  of  a slightly  chem- 
ically compacted  soil,  it  would  have  resulted  in  a sandstone 
formation  incapable  of  cultivation.  There  is  not  enough  clayey 
matter  present  to  prevent  the  water  from  percolating  through  it 
as  perfectly  as  through  sand,  though  a great  deal  more  slowly. 
This  same  peculiarity  causes  ponds  and  stagnant  water  to  be  rare 
within  the  limits  of  this  deposit.” 

In  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State,  the  region  of  the  “ Bad 
Lands,”  to  which  we  have  already  referred,  the  loess  is  not  a sur- 
face deposit.  The  hills,  “Great  Hills,”  as  they  are  called  on 
some  of  the  maps,  are  either  composed  of  loose-moving  sand 
which  is  blown  by  the  winds  into  round,  conical  hills  with  consid- 
erable regularity — hills  sometimes  covered  scantily  with  tufts  of 
grass,  but  oftener  with  the  yuccas  or  Spanish  needles  or  some  of 
the  custi ; or  the  fantastic  forms  of  the  clay  and  soft  tertiary  lime- 
stones, cut  by  the  water-courses  into  the  semblance  of  ruined 
cities,  towers,  temples  and  columns,  and  often  covered  with  spark- 
ling alkaline  crystals.  This  region  of  “ Bad  Lands  ” occupies, 
according  to  Professor  Hayden,  an  area  of  about  20,000  square 
miles  on  both  sides  of  the  Niobrara  river.  There  are  many  little 
lakes  or  ponds  in  this  region,  some  salt,  some  alkaline,  and  some 
very  pure  and  fresh.  This  whole  tract  abounds  in  fossils  of  the 
most  remarkable  character.  While  these  lands  are  geologically 
connected  with  the  “ Bad  Lands  ” on  the  White  Earth  river  in 
Dakota,  it  is  a very  interesting  fact  that  the  fossils  of  the  Dakota 
lands  belong  to  an  earlier  period  than  those  of  the  Nebraska 
lands,  and  that  the  two  seem  to  have  had  hardly  any  animals 
common  to  both.  These  regions  have  been  the  favorite  hunting- 
ground  for  fossils  of  Professors  Leidy  and  O.  C.  Marsh.  Of  the 
Nebraska  fossils  Professor  F.  V.  Hayden  says: 

“ If  we  pass  for  a moment  southward  into  the  valleys  of  the 
Niobrara  and  Loup  fork,  we  shall  find  a fauna  closely  allied,  yet 
entirely  distinct  from  the  one  on  White  river,  and  plainly  inter- 


FOSSILS  OF  NFBFASKA. 


3^4 

mediate  between  that  of  the  latter  and  of  the  present  period  ; one 
appears  to  have  lived  during  the  middle  or  rniocene  tertiary  pe- 
riod, and  the  other  at  a later  time  in  what  is  called  the  pliocene 
In  the  later  fauna  were  the  remains  of  a number  of  species  of 
extinct  camels,  one  of  which  was  of  the  size  of  the  Arabian  camel, 
a second  about  two-thirds  as  large,  also  a smaller  one.  The  only 
animals  akin  to  the  camels,  at  the  present  time  in  the  western 
hemisphere,  are  the  llama  and  its  allies  in  South  America.  Not 
less  interesting  are  the  remains  of  a great  variety  of  forms  of  the 
horse  family,  one  of  which  was  about  as  large  as  the  ordinary 
domestic  animal,  and  the  smallest  not  more  than  two  or  two  and  a 
half  feet  in  height,  with  every  intermediate  grade  in  size.  There  was 
still  another  animal  allied  to  the  horse,  about  the  size  of  a New- 
foundland dog,  which  was  provided  with  three  hoofs  to  each  foot, 
though  the  lateral  hoofs  were  rudimental.  Although  no  horses 
were  known  to  exist  on  this  continent  prior  to  its  discovery  by 
Europeans,  yet  Dr.  Leidy  has  shown  that  before  the  age  of  man 
this  was  emphatically  the  country  of  horses.  Dr.  Leidy  has  re- 
ported twenty-seven  species  of  the  horse  family  which  are 
known  to  have  lived  on  this  continent  prior  to  the  advent  of  man 
— about  three  times  as  many  as  are  now  found  living  throughout 
the  world. 

“Among  the  carnivorae  were  several  foxes  and  wolves,  one 
of  which  was  larger  than  any  now  living ; three  species  of  hyse- 
nodon — animals  whose  teeth  indicate  that  they  were  of  remark- 
ably rapacious  habits ; also  five  animals  of  the  cat  tribe  were 
found,  one  about  the  size  of  a small  panther,  and  another  as 
large  as  the  largest  wolf.  Several  of  the  skulls  of  the  tiger-like 
animals  exhibited  the  marks  of  terrible  conflicts  with  the  cotem- 
porary hyaenodons. 

“Among  the  rodents  were  a porcupine,  small  beaver,  rabbit, 
mouse,  etc. 

“ The  pachyderms,  or  thick-skinned  animals,  were  quite  numer- 
ous and  of  great  interest,  from  the  fact  that  none  of  them  are 
living  on  this  continent  at  the  present  time,  and  yet  here  we  find 
the  remains  of  several  animals  allied  to  the  domestic  hog,  one 
about  the  size  of  this  animal,  another  as  large  as  the  African 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  365 

hippopotamus,  and  a third  not  much  larger  than  the  domestic 
cat. 

“Five  species  of  the  rhinoceros  roamed  through  these  marshes, 
ranging  from  a small,  hornless  species,  about  the  size  of  our  black 
bear,  to  the  largest,  which  was  about  the  size  of  the  existing 
unicorn  of  India.  No  animals  of  the  kind  now  inhabit  the  western 
hemisphere. 

“Among  the  thick-skinned  animals  were  the  remains  of  a mas- 
todon and  a large  elephant,  distinct  from  any  others  heretofore 
discovered  in  any  part  of  the  world.  Dr.  Leidy  says  that  ‘ it  is 
remarkable  that  among  the  remains  of  mammals  and  turtles  there 
are  none  of  crocodiles.  Where  were  these  creatures  when  the 
shores  of  the  ancient  Dakotan  and  Nebraskan  waters  teemed 
with  such  an  abundant  provision  of  savory  ruminating  hogs?’ 
During  the  tertiary  period  Nebraska  and  Dakota  were  the  homes 
of  a race  of  animals  more  closely  allied  to  those  inhabiting  Asia 
and  Africa  now,  and  from  their  character  we  may  suppose  that 
during  that  period  the  climate  was  considerably  warmer  than  it 
is  at  present.  The  inference  is  also  drawn  that  our  world,  which 
is  usually  called  the  new,  is  in  reality  the  old  world,  older  than 
the  eastern  hemisphere. 

“ Ever  since  the  commencement  of  creation,  constant  changes 
of  form  have  been  going  on  in  our  earth.  Oceans  and  moun- 
tains have  disappeared,  and  others  have  taken  their  place.  Entire 
groups  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  have  passed  away,  and  new 
forms  have  come  into  existence  through  a series  of  years  which 
no  finite  mind  can  number.  To  enable  the  mind  to  realize  the 
physical  condition  of  our  planet  during  all  these  past  ages  is  the 
highest  end  to  be  attained  by  the  study  of  geological  facts.  It 
has  been  well  said  by  an  eloquent  historian  that  he  who  calls  the 
past  back  again  into  being  enjoys  a bliss  like  that  of  creating. 

“We  may  attempt  to  form  some  idea  of  the  physical  geography 
of  this  region  at  the  time  when  these  animals  wandered  over  the 
country,  and  to  speculate  as  to  the  manner  in  which  their  remains 
have  been  so  beautifully  preserved  for  our  examination.  We 
may  suppose  that  here  was  a large  fresh-water  lake  during  the 
middle  tertiary  period ; that  it  began  near  the  southeastern  side 


366  THE  FOSSIL  MAMMALS  OF  NEB  A' A SKA. 

of  the  Black  Hills,  not  large  at  first  nor  deep,  but  as  a marsh 
or  mud-wallow  for  the  gigantic  pachyderms  that  lived  at  the  time; 
that  as  time  passed  on  it  became  deeper  and  expanded  its  limits 
until  it  covered  the  vast  area  which  its  sediments  indicate.  We 
cannot  attempt  to  point  out  in  detail  all  the  changes  through 
which  we  may  suppose,  from  the  facts  given  us,  this  lake  has 
passed,  during  the  thousands  of  years  that  elapsed  from  its  be- 
ginning to  its  extinction,  time  long  enough  for  two  distinct  faunae 
to  have  commenced  their  existence  and  passed  away  in  succes- 
sion, not  a single  species  passing  from  one  into  the  other.  Even 
that  small  fraction  of  geological  time  seems  infinite  to  a finite 
mind.  We  believe  that  the  great  range  of  mountains  that  now 
lies  to  the  west  of  this  basin  was  not  as  lofty  as  now  ; that  doubt- 
less the  treeless  plains  were  covered  with  forests  or  grassy 
meadows,  upon  which  the  vast  herds  of  gregarious  ruminants 
cropped  their  food.  Into  this  great  lake  on  every  side  poured 
many  little  streams  from  broad  valleys,  fine  ranging  ground  for 
the  numerous  varieties  of  creatures  that  existed  at  that  time. 
Large  numbers  of  fierce  carnivorous  beasts  mingled  with  the 
multitudes  of  gregarious  ruminants,  constantly  devouring  them 
as  food.  As  many  of  the  bones,  either  through  death  by  vio- 
lence or  natural  causes,  were  left  in  the  valleys,  they  would  be 
swept  down  by  the  first  high  waters  into  the  lake,  and  enveloped 
in  the  sediments  at  the  bottom.  As  the  gregarious  ruminants 
came  down  to  the  little  streams,  or  by  the  shores  of  the  lake  to 
quench  their  thirst,  they  would  be  pounced  upon  by  the  flesh- 
loving  hyaenodon,  drepanodon  or  dinichthys.  It  was  probably  near 
this  place  also  that  these  animals  would  meet  in  fierce  conflicts, 
the  evidences  of  which  remain  to  the  present  time  in  the  cavities 
which  the  skulls  reveal ; one  of  these,  of  a huge  cat,  shows  on 
either  side  the  holes  through  the  bony  covering  which  had  parti- 
ally healed  before  the  animal  perished  ; and  the  cavities  seem  to 
correspond  in  form  and  position  with  the  teeth  of  the  largest 
hyaenodon. 

“The  remains  of  those  animals  which,  from  their  very  nature, 
could  not  have  existed  in  great  numbers,  are  not  abundant 
in  the  fossil  state,  while  those  of  the  ruminants  occur  in  the 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


367 


greatest  abundance,  and  are  widely  diffused  in  the  sediments,  not 
only  geographically,  but  vertically.  The  chances  for  the  remains 
of  a species  seem  to  depend  upon  the  number  of  individuals 
that  existed.  The  remains  of  ruminants  already  obtained  com- 
prise at  least  nine-tenths  of  the  entire  collection,  while  of  one 
species  portions  of  at  least  seven  hundred  individuals  have  been 
discovered.  There  is  another  interesting  feature  in  regard  to 
these  remarkable  fossils,  and  that  is  the  beauty  and  perfection 
of  their  preservation  ; the  bones  are  so  clean  and  white  and  the 
teeth  so  perfect,  that  when  exposed  upon  the  surface  they  pre- 
sent the  appearance  of  having  bleached  only  for  a season.  They 
-could  not  have  been  transported  from  a great  distance,  neither 
could  the  waters  have  been  swift  and  turbulent,  for  the  bones 
seldom  show  any  signs  of  having  been  water-worn,  and  the  nice„ 
sharp  points  and  angles  are  as  perfect  as  in  life.” 

Minerals. — The  mineral  wealth  of  the  State  consists  largely  of 
the  two  coal  beds  which  we  have  described — the  true  coal  in  the 
southeast,  which  possesses  but  little  economic  value,  and  the  lig- 
nite, which  will  probably  be  found  profitable.  Peat  exists  in  im- 
mense beds  in  Central  and  Western  Nebraska,  and  in  the  opinion 
of  Mr.  E.  A.  Curley,  a competent  judge  in  these  matters,  in  the 
best  form  and  condition  to  be  made  available  for  fuel.  At  some 
time  in  the  not  distant  future,  these  peat  beds  may  prove  more 
valuable  than  the  thin  seams  of  coal  in  the  coal  measures.  Lime, 
sandstone,  limestone,  and  marble  for  ornamental  purposes,  gyp- 
sum, and  especially  salt,  are  the  other  principal  minerals.  There 
are  many  salt  basins  in  the  central  and  western  parts  of  the  State. 
The  most  extensive  is  in  Lancaster  county,  in  a district  of  twelve 
by  twenty-five  miles,  surrounding  Lincoln,  the  capital  of  the 
State.  The  spring  waters  contain  twenty-nine  per  cent,  of  salt, 
and  the  salt  is  manufactured  by  the  solar  evaporation  process. 
The  salt  is  said  to  be  the  purest  in  the  world,  having  pSj^o  per 
cent,  of  pure  chloride  of  sodium.  The  sandstones,  limestones, 
and  marble  or  magnesian  limestone,  are  all  of  excellent  quality 
for  building  and  ornamental  purposes. 


SOIL  AND  PRAIRIE  VEGETATION. 


368 

Soil  and  Vegelation. — The  soil  of  the  uplands  is  largely  com- 
posed of  loess,  and  that  of  the  river  valleys  of  alluvium.  The 
two  deposits  are  similar  in  chemical  elements,  and  they  form  a 
very  rich  and  durable  soil,  exceedingly  valuable  for  agricultural 
purposes,  ranging  in  thickness  from  five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
and  even  two  hundred  feet.  Careful  analyses  of  the  soil  show 
that  in  the  loess  over  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  formation  is  finely 
comminuted  silica : so  fine  that  its  true  character  can  only  be  de- 
tected under  a microscope.  About  ten  per  cent,  of  its  substance 
is  made  up  of  carbonates  and  phosphates  of  lime.  There  are 
some  small  amounts  of  alkaline  matter,  iron  and  alumina  ; the 
result  being  a soil  that  can  never  be  exhausted  until  every  hill 
and  valley  which  composes  it  is  entirely  worn  away.  Its  finely 
comminuted  silica  gives  it  natural  drainage  in  the  highest  degree. 
When  torrents  of  rain  come,  the  water  soon  percolates  the  soil, 
which,  in  its  lowest  depths,  retains  it  like  a huge  sponge.  When 
droughty  periods  intervene,  the  moisture  rises  from  below  by 
capillary  attraction,  supplying  nearly  all  the  needs  of  vegetation  in 
the  dryest  seasons.  The  richer  surface  soil  overlies  the  sub-soil, 
and  is  from  eighteen  inches  to  three  and  four,  and  even  six  feet 
thick.  It  is  organically  the  same  as  the  sub-soil,  but  enriched 
with  organic  matter^  the  growth  and  decay  of  innumerable  cen- 
turies— a garden  soil,  easily  cultivated,  and  making  the  arable 
farm  as  a garden. 

The  prairie,  clothed  only  by  natural  processes,  presents  its  own 
testimony  to  the  riches  of  the  State.  Its  whole  expanse  is  cov- 
ered with  grasses,  there  being  not  fewer  than  150  species,  and 
the  most  abundant,  making  the  best  pasture,  showing  green  at 
the  end  of  April,  and  affording  feed  until  November.  The  blue 
joint  grows  everywhere  except  on  low  bottoms.  Under  ordinary 
conditions  its  growth  is  two  and  a half  to  four  feet ; and  on  culti- 
vated grounds  it  is  found  from  seven  to  ten  feet  high.  Wild  oats 
grow  on  the  uplands,  mixed  with  blue-joint.  This  grass  is  relished 
by  cattle  and  is  abundant.  The  buffalo  grass,  low  in  habit,  is 
now  found  in  the  western  half  of  the  State.  It  disappears  before 
cultivation,  but  it  is  nature’s  provision  of  food  for  grain-eating 
animals  during  winter,  on  the  prairie,  inasmuch  as  it  retains  its 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


369 

nutriment  all  the  year  round.  Among  other  feed  grasses  are 
several  varieties  of  bunch-grass ; and  in  the  low  lands  a native 
blue-grass  and  the  spangle-top,  which  latter  makes  excellent  hay. 

The  Nebraska  prairie  is  not  bare  of  trees — in  fact,  the  native 
trees  furnish  a large  list.  The  river  bluffs  are  clothed  with 
them,  and  the  banks  of  the  streams.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
buckeye,  two  of  maple,  the  box-elder,  two  of  locust,  four  of  ash, 
four  of  elm,  four  of  hickory,  eleven  of  oak,  twelve  of  willow 
(eight  species  being  shrubs),  three  of  birch,  three  of  poplar,  hack- 
berry,  iron  wood,  one  sycamore,  black  walnut,  two  spruce  firs, 
yellow  pine,  white  cedar  and  red  cedar.  The  shrubs  include 
common  juniper,  linden,  pawpaw,  prickly  ash,  five  sumacs,  shrub 
trefoil,  two  species  of  red  root,  spindle-tree,  buckthorn,  six  spe- 
cies of  plum,  six  currants  and  gooseberries,  five  dogwoods,  butter 
bush,  buffalo  berry,  red  and  white  mulberry,  hazelnut  and  beaked 
hazelnut.  Cedars  are  found  on  the  islands  of  the  Platte,  and 
along  the  Loups  and  the  Niobrara  there  is  a goodly  quantity  of 
pine.  But  the  point  is  here  : this  list  of  trees  is  proof  that  trees 
flourish  on  the  prairie;  and  that  as  much  timber  as  is  needed  for 
all  uses  can  be  raised  on  the  farm. 

During  the  Indian  period,  when  prairie  fires  annually  swept 
over  the  country,  the  timber  was  confined  to  the  banks  of  the 
streams;  but  since  the  era  of  civilization  and  cultivation  has  com- 
menced, the  prairie  fires  are  checked,  and  groves  and  forests 
have  become  possible  on  the  prairie. 

Zoology. — Buffaloes  are  entirely  unknown  even  in  the 
southwestern  and  northwestern  parts  of  the  State.  The  elk 
[Ce7^vus  Canadensis^  is  the  noblest  game  animal  of  the  plains; 
it  sometimes  weighs  from  700  to  800  pounds,  and  its  antlers  are 
magnificent.  Its  range  is  in  the  west  from  the  south  to  the  north, 
feeding  on  the  high  prairies,  and  frequenting  also  the  ravines. 
The  antelope  {Antilocapra  Americana),  in  plentiful  herds  and  fleet 
as  the  winds,  is  found  everywhere  west  of  Plum  creek ; and  the 
white  or  long-tailed  deer  [Cervus  Leuctcrns) , diud  the  black-tailed 
{^Cei'vits  Macrons')  are  denizens  of  the  same  region — the  white- 
tailed being  found  over  the  whole  State.  In  the  far  west  and 
among  the  ravines,  the  big-horn  sheep  [Ovis  Montana)  will  now 


370 


ZOOLOGY  OF  NEBRASKA. 


and  again  fall  to  the  rifle.  The  time  for  hunting  is  from  the  first 
of  October  to  the  end  of  December,  the  law  protecting  the  ani- 
mals during  the  remainder  of  the  year.  The  jack  rabbit  or 
prairie  hare  [^Leporidce  Campestris)  is  common.  He  is  a strong 
and  fleet  animal,  and  is  good  game  for  coursing,  and  only  to  be 
run  down  by  the  strongest  and  fleetest  greyhounds.  The  little 
gray  rabbit  is  also  common,  and  affords  excellent  shooting ; and 
away  in  the  west,  the  sage  rabbit.  In  the  timber,  the  black  bear 
and  two  species  of  lynx  are  found — rarely  in  the  settled  parts  of 
the  State,  and  more  commonly  on  the  frontier ; and  also  in  the 
same  localities,  the  large  white  and  gray  wolf.  The  coyote,  or 
prairie  wolf,  is  also  worth  hunting,  the  animal  having  all  the  cun- 
ning of  the  fox  and  more  than  the  wit  of  the  prairie  foxes,  of 
which  there  are  three  species,  the  red  fox,  the  prairie  fox  and  the 
kit  fox.  Some  of  the  streams  are  still  populous  with  beavers, 
minks  and  muskrats.  The  game  birds  of  Nebraska  are  plentiful; 
and  in  the  season  afford  sport  in  abundance.  The  wild  turkey  is 
the  noblest  of  them  all.  Civilization  drives  it  away ; but  in  the 
wilder  parts  of  the  State,  the  bird  is  common  enough,  and  where 
the  woods  are  thickening  in  the  river  counties,  its  reappearance 
is  beginning  to  be  noted.  The  prairie  chickens — the  grouse  of 
the  prairie — are  everywhere  ; and  away  out  on  the  frontier,  the 
large  sage  hen.  Quail  are  plentiful  and  readily  shot;  and  there 
are  several  plovers  which  are  worth  the  powder  and  shot  of  the 
sportsman.  In  early  spring  and  late  fall,  large  flocks  of  wild 
geese  cross  the  State,  resting  during  the  journey  on  the  rivers, 
creeks  and  ponds.  Mallards,  teal,  and  many  other  species  of  wild 
duck,  are  plentiful  during  the  same  seasons.  Of  cranes  there  are 
four  or  five  species — the  sand-hill  crane,  the  largest,  being  ac- 
counted an  excellent  table-bird.  There  are  numerous  hawks, 
and  the  bald-headed  eagle  is  frequently  seen  in  the  sparsely  set- 
tled districts.  The  streams  are  well  stocked  with  the  common 
kinds  of  fish,  and  in  the  northwest  there  is  an  abundance  of  trout 
in  the  streams. 


BOUNDARII^S  AND  TOPOGRAPHY. 


371 


Historical  Data. — Nebraska  was  originally  a part  of  the  great 
Louisiana  Territory,  and  subsequently  of  Missouri  Territory.  As 
early  as  1844,  Senator  Douglas  introduced  a bill  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a Nebraska  Territory,  which  was  to  include  Kansas, 
Dakota,  Wyoming,  and  so  much  of  Colorado  and  Montana  as 
then  belonged  to  us,  but  the  bill  failed.  Ten  years  later  (in 
1854),  Nebraska  was  organized  as  a Territory,  including  Dakota, 
Montana,  most  of  Wyoming  and  Northeastern  Colorado.  In 
1861  it  was  stripped  of  most  of  these,  and  in  1867  was  admitted 
as  a State  with  a population  considerably  under  100,000.  On 
the  completion  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  which  had  its  eastern 
terminus  at  Omaha,  its  population  began  to  increase,  but  its  most 
rapid  growth  has  been  during  the  last  five  years. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

NEVADA. 

Nevada,  sometimes  called  the  Silver  State,  is  the  central  State 
of  the  seven  lying  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  may  be 
said  in  a general  way  to  be  bounded  by  Oregon  and  Idaho,  Utah 
and  Arizona,  and  California.  Its  shape  is  irregular,  and  can  per- 
haps be  best  defined  by  the  official  statement  of  its  boundary, 
made  in  the  act  of  Congress  settling  its  present  boundary.  This 
statement  is  as  follows : “Commencing  at  the  northwest  corner 
of  Utah  Territory,  and  the  southern  line  of  Idaho,  at  the  37th 
degree  of  longitude  west  from  Washington  (and  114  degrees 
west  from  Greenwich),  and  in  latitude  forty-two  degrees  north, 
and  running  west  along  the  southern  line  of  Idaho  and  Oregon 
to  longitude  forty-three  degrees  west  from  Washington. (and  120 
degrees  west  from  Greenwich) ; thence  south,  along  the  eastern 
line  of  California,  to  latitude  thirty-nine  degrees  north,  which 
falls  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Lake  Tahoe;  thence  southeasterly 
to  the  intersection  of  the  Colorado  river,  in  latitude  thirty-five 
degrees  north,  and  opposite  Fort  Mojave ; thence  north  and  east- 
erly up  the  centre  of  the  Colorado  river  to  the  intersection  of  the 
thirtv-seventh  degree  of  longitude  west  from  Washington  (and 


372 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


the  1 14th  degree  west  from  Greenwich),  and  the  prolongation  of 
the  western  line  of  Utah  Territory  ; thence  north,  along  the  west- 
ern line  of  Arizona  and  Utah,  to  the  place  of  beginning  ; contain- 
ing 71,737,741  acres,  or  112,090  square  miles.” 

The  boundaries  of  the  State  have  been  changed  once  or  twice, 
but  the  actual  area  above  given  is  that  of  the  United  States  Land 
Office,  and  that  laid  down  in  the  act  of  Congress  enlarging  its 
boundaries.  The  area  as  given  in  the  almanacs  varies  from 
81,539  square  miles  (30,551  square  miles  below  the  fact)  to  104,- 
125  (7,965  square  miles  too  small)  ; but  the  actual  area  is  that 
given  above.  The  greatest  length  of  the  State  from  north  to  south 
is  about  490  miles;  its  greatest  breadth  about  300  miles. 

Topography  and  Surface. — Nevada  is  almost  wholly  within  the 
limits  of  the  great  interior  American  Basin,  which  includes  also 
nearly  three-fifths  of  Utah.  This  basin  is  bounded  on  the  east 
by  the  Wahsatch  range,  a continuation  of  the  Bitter  Root  and 
Wind  River  Mountains  of  Idaho  and  Wyoming,  extending  to  and 
along  the  northwestern  bank  of  the  Colorado  river,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  two  chains  meet  in  Southeastern 
California,  and  are  connected  at  the  north  by  spurs  running  from 
east  to  west.  Within  the  basin  all  streams  are  either  lost  in 
“ sinks  ” or  discharore  their  waters  into  fresh  or  salt  water  lakes 

O 

within  the  basin.  A small  tract  in  Northern  Nevada  is  outside 
of  the  basin,  and  is  drained  by  the  Owyhee  river,  an  affluent  of 
the  Lewis  fork  or  Snake  river,  one  of  the  constituent  streams  of 
the  Columbia  river.  In  the  extreme  south  two  or  three  small 
tributaries  of  the  Colorado,  as  the  Virgin  river.  Muddy  river  and 
Las  Vegas  creek,  have  cut  their  way  through  the  mountain  bar- 
riers of  the  basin,  and  discharge  their  waters  into  the  Colorado. 
The  Humboldt,  the  Little  Humboldt,  the  Reese,  the  Carson,  the 
Amargosa  and  many  smaller  streams,  either  sink  through  the 
alkaline  sands  and  disappear  from  sight,  or  fall  into  deep  de- 
pressions apparently  made  by  the  giving  way  of  the  roof  of  some 
cavern,  or  fall  into  some  one  of  the  marshes  or  the  numerous 
lakes,  salt  and  fresh,  which  are  found  all  over  the  State. 

The  area  of  the  Great  Basin  is  traversed  from  north  to  south 
by  numerous  parallel  ranges  of  mountains,  having  an  altitude  of 


LAKES  AND  RIVERS  OF  NEVADA. 


373 

about  9,000  feet.  These  are  separated  by  fertile  valleys,  which 
are  watered  by  streams  flowing  from  the  mountains  and  having 
their  supply  from  the  melting  snows.  These  streams  afford 
facilities  for  irrigation,  without  which,  in  most  cases,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil  is  impossible.  But  a very  large  part  of  the  State 
consists  of  a lofty  table-land,  with  mountain  summits  rising  to  an 
altitude  of  about  9,000  or  9,500  feet,  and  broken  mainly  by  the  deep 
ravines  or  canons,  caused  by  the  erosion  of  mountain  torrents. 
The  long  valleys  between  have  an  elevation  of  from  4,000  to 
6,000  feet. 

Lakes  and  Rivers. — The  principal  lakes  are  Tahoe,  Pyramid, 
Walker,  Carson,  Washoe  and  Humboldt.  Tahoe  has  an  eleva- 
tion above  the  sea-level  of  about  6,000  feet.  It  is  about  1,500 
feet  in  depth.  It  is  situated  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains, 
fourteen  miles  from  Carson  City.  The  western  line  of  the  State 
divides  it  about  the  centre.  The  water  is  very  clear  and  cool, 
and  remarkable  for  its  specific  lightness.  The  bodies  of  persons 
drowned  in  Lake  Tahoe  never  rise  to  the  surface.  It  is  twenty- 
two  miles  in  length  by  fourteen  in  width. 

Pyramid  lake  is  thirty-five  miles  long,  and  from  ten  to  fifteen 
in  width.  Its  elevation  above  sea-level  is  about  4,000  feet.  It  is 
situated  in  the  southwestern  portion  of  Humboldt  county.  It  is 
surrounded  by  mountains,  which  rise  to  the  height  of  about  3,000 
feet.  It  has  been  sounded,  and  found  in  places  3,600  feet  deep. 
It  gets  its  name  from  a rock  which  rises  600  feet  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  in  the  shape  of  a pyramid.  There  is  an  island 
near  the  eastern  side  which  contains  about  600  acres  of  land,  upon 
which  rattlesnakes  and  wild  goats  abound.  It  has  no  outlet,  and 
is  fed  by  the  Truckee  river  and  other  mountain  streams. 

Washoe  lake  is  situated  in  Washoe  county.  Its  waters  are 
shallow  and  alkaline.  It  covers  about  six  square  miles.  It  is 
surrounded  by  mountains ; on  the  west  are  the  Sierras,  from 
which  it  is  chiefly  fed  by  numerous  small  streams  which  flow  out 
into  the  valley  sink,  and  then  rise  again  in  the  lake. 

Walker  lake  is  about  twenty-five  miles  long  and  ten  miles  in 
width.  Its  area  has  been  considerably  increased  of  late  years,  so 
that  the  old  stage  road,  formerly  about  five  miles  from  its  shores, 


374 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


is  now  under  water.  It  is  situated  in  Mason  valley,  Esmeralda 
county.  Its  elevation  above  sea-level  is  about  4,000  feet,  and  its 
waters  are  fresh  and  clear. 

Humboldt  lake,  more  commonly  called  the  Sink  of  Humboldt, 
is  twenty  miles  in  length  and  ten  miles  in  width.  Its  waters  are 
brackish  and  strongly  impregnated  with  salt  and  soda.  It  is  sit- 
uated near  the  line  between  Humboldt  and  Churchill  counties, 
and  has  an  altitude  above  sea-level  of  4,100  feet.  It  is  about  the 
lowest  point  in  the  Great  Basin.  The  waters  from  the  east  and 
west  meet  here. 

The  Carson  lakes  are  situated  near  the  centre  of  Churchill 
county.  They  are  about  twenty  miles  apart,  and  spread  out  over 
a vast  area  of  low  ground,  so  that  their  dimensions  vary  greatly 
in  proportion  to  the  dryness  of  the  season,  and  the  amount  of  the 
snow-fall  on  the  Sierras.  In  wet  seasons  they  are  connected  by 
a slough  with  Humboldt  lake ; and  the  waters,  like  that  of  the 
latter  lake,  are  impure,  and  contain  a large  per  cent,  of  alkali  and 
salt. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Colorado,  none  of  the  rivers  of  Nevada 
are  navigable.  The  Colorado  forms  part  of  the  southern  boundary 
of  the  State.  Its  average  width  is  one-half  mile.  The  average 
current  at  ordinary  low  stages,  where  no  contraction  or  special 
<^bstruction  exists,  is  about  three  and  one-half  miles  per  hour. 
l.Vhen  it  passes  over  rapids  and  through  narrow  canons,  the  cur- 
rent is  more  than  twice  as  rapid,  so  that  it  is  difficult  for  steam- 
boats to  stem  it. 

The  Truckee  river  forms  an  outlet  for  Lake  Tahoe  to  empty 
its  waters  into  Pyramid  lake.  Two-thirds  of  its  entire  course  is 
in  Washoe  county.  It  affords  many  excellent  sites  for  mills,  but 
its  waters  are  chiefly  used  in  irrigating  the  fertile  lands  of  Washoe 
county.  During  the  past  few  years  many  ditches  have  been  con^ 
structed  for  irrigating  purposes,  and  still  there  is  a large  supply 
of  water  left. 

The  Carson  river  heads  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  and 
flows  through  Douglas,  Ormsby  and  Lyon  counties.  Although 
not  so  large  as  the  Walker,  its  waters  have  been  made  much 
more  useful.  Numerous  large  quartz  mills  have  been  erected 


LAKES  AND  RIVERS  OF  NEVADA. 


375 

on  its  banks,  which  are  run  by  water-power.  It  irrigates  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  fertile  lands,  and  also  furnishes  the  means  for 
the  transportation  of  thousands  of  cords  of  wood  from  the  moun- 
tains to  the  markets. 

The  Walker  river  also  has  its  source  in  the  Sierras;  it  flows 
through  Esmeralda  county,  and  empties  its  waters  into  Walker 
lake.  It  is  only  used  for  irrigation,  being  situated  too  far  away 
from  the  mines  to  be  made  available  for  milling  purposes. 

The  Humboldt  river  flows  from  the  east.  It  has  its  source  in 
Utah,  and,  after  winding  through  a succession  of  mountains  for 
a distance  of  about  300  miles,  it  empties  its  waters  into  Hum- 
boldt lake. 

The  Owyhee  river  has  its  source  in  the  mountains  which  sur- 
round Independence  valley.  It  flows  north  into  the  Snake  and 
Columbia  rivers,  and  finally  empties  its  waters  into  the  Pacific. 
It  is  the  only  river  which  rises  within  the  borders  of  the  State 
that  has  an  outlet  to  the  ocean.  Reese  river  heads  in  the  moun- 
tains to  the  southeast  of  lone.  It  flows  north,  and  sinks  before 
reaching  the  Humboldt. 

In  all  of  these  lakes  and  streams  are  found  several  varieties  of 
food  fish,  chiefly  different  species  of  trout.  In  all  of  the  mountain 
streams  and  in  the  head  waters  of  the  rivers  already  described 
brook  trout  abound,  while  in  the  lakes  and  those  streams  which 
empty  into  them  are  found  silver  trout.  In  Lake  Tahoe  a very 
large  variety  of  trout  is  found,  some  of  which  have  been  caught 
which  weighed  thirty  pounds  each.  In  the  Owyhee  river  are 
found  salmon  and  salmon  trout.  Through  the  efforts  of  the  Fish 
Commissioner  appointed  at  the  last  session  of  the  Legislature, 
Carson,  Walker  and  Humboldt  lakes  and  the  Truckee  river  have 
been  stocked  with  Schuylkill  catfish  and  Sacramento  perch.  A 
fish  hatchery  has  been  established  in  Carson,  and  200,000  Mc- 
Cloud river  salmon  are  ready  for  distribution  in  the  different 
lakes  and  streams  in  the  State. 

In  the  eastern  counties  considerable  game  is  found,  as  prairie 
chickens,  grouse  and  quail.  In  the  mountains  and  upland  valleys 
are  often  seen  mountain  sheep  and  antelope.  The  otter  and 
beaver  are  sometimes  found.  The  grizzly  bear,  cougar,  wild  cat, 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


376 

lynx,  wolf,  cinnamon  and  black  bears,  coyotes,  and  generally  the 
beasts  of  prey  found  in  California,  are  also  inhabitants  of  Ne- 
vada, though  not  as  abundant  as  in  some  other  States. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Nevada,  owing  to  the  diversities  of 
surface,  variations  of  altitude  and  other  causes,  irrespective  of 
the  differences  of  latitude,  varies  greatly  in  different  localities. 
The  changes  of  the  season  are  very  irregular,  and  pass  into  each 
other  without  notice.  Generally  the  extremes  of  temperature 
are  not  great.  Within  the  Great  Basin,  during  the  summer 
months,  the  thermometer  seldom  rises  above  95°  Fahrenheit; 
nor  does  it  often  fall  below  zero  in  winter,  except  upon  the  moun- 
tains and  in  the  most  elevated  and  exposed  valleys.  At  Carson 
City,  where  the  elevation  above  sea-level  is  4,630  feet,  the  annual 
mean  temperature  is  about  52°,  the  annual  maximum  68°,  and 
the  annual  minimum  34°.  At  this  point  heavy  winds  from  the 
southwest  prevail.  During  the  year  1876  there  were  316  windy 
days,  217  cloudy,  and  49  rainy.  The  fall  of  rain  and  snow  for 
the  same  year  was  17.73  inches.  The  nights  are  always  cool  in 
summer  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  This  marked  peculiarity  of 
climate  is  due  to  the  cooling  effects  of  the  many  ranges  of  snow- 
covered  mountains.  The  atmosphere  is  exceedingly  dry.  There 
are  never  any  fogs.  The  moisture  of  the  clouds  is  condensed 
on  the  mountain-tops,  so  that  the  fall  of  rain  in  the  valleys  is  very 
limited.  The  carcasses  of  dead  animals  dry  up  with  but  little 
offensive  putrefaction,  leaving  the  bones  and  hides  mummified. 
In  the  eastern  portion  of  the  State  cloud-bursts  are  of  frequent 
occurrence  from  about  the  first  of  July  to  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber. The  climate  is  healthful.  No  country  in  the  world  is  more 
free  from  infectious  diseases.  Epidemics  are  never  known. 
Earthquake  shocks  are  sometimes  felt,  but  rarely  severe  enough 
to  do  any  damage. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — It  has  been  demonstrated  by  the 
geological  explorations  on  the  fortieth  parallel,  that  the  Nevada 
ranges  of  mountains  belong  to  the  same  system  of  upheavals 
which  took  place  during  the  Jurassic  period.  These  immense 
mountain  masses  are  composed  of  sedimentary  strata,  granite  and 
kindred  formations  and  volcanic  rocks.  The  stratified  beds  com- 


MINERALS  AND  METALS  OF  NEVADA. 


377 


prise  the  largest  portion,  and  extend  from  the  Azoic  age  up  to 
the  time  of  upheaval.  The  rock  formations  embrace  nearly  every 
species  of  sedimentary  or  eruptive  products  existing,  from  the 
earliest  to  the  most  recent  period.  In  the  mountains  which  skirt 
upon  the  Sierras,  the  eruptive  rocks  prevail;  while  farther  east 
are  found  the  metamorphic  and  sedimentary  formations.  Metal- 
liferous deposits  and  veins  exist  in  all  the  mountain  ranges,  the 
most  productive  of  which  still  continues  to  be  the  Comstock  lode. 

The  valleys,  in  general,  correspond  with  the  mountain  ranges. 
They  are  sometimes  short,  being  intersected  by  the  low  moun- 
tains, which  in  many  places  link  together  the  parallel  ranges, 
running  north  and  south,  but  usually  they  are  long  and  narrow. 
With  but  slight  elevations,  several  openings  are  found,  extending 
from  the  Humboldt  river  to  the  Colorado,  the  southern  limit  of 
the  State.  Many  of  the  valleys  are  dry  and  unfit  for  cultivation; 
some  are  covered  with  alkali  and  sand,  while  others  are  scarcely 
less  productive  than  the  most  fertile  valleys  of  California.  All 
have  been  mainly  filled  by  the  products  of  erosion. 

Minerals. — Of  the  productions  of  Nevada,  silver  and  gold  are 
beyond  comparison  the  most  important.  Scarcely  twenty  years 
have  elapsed  since  this  State  was  inhabited  only  by  the  red  man, 
and  a few  Mormon  settlers  in  Carson  Valley ; and  yet  during  this 
time  the  enormous  sum  of  ^400,000,000  in  silver  and  gold  have 
been  produced  from  the  Nevada  mines.  More  than  two-thirds 
of  this  yield  has  been  since  the  year  1871. 

Although  silver  and  gold  are  the  chief  products  of  the  State, 
there  are  other  mineral  resources  which  are  of  no  mean  impor- 
tance. The  lead  product  of  Eastern  Nevada  has  increased  so 
rapidly  during  the  past  two  years,  that  Eureka  now  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  lead-producing  districts  in  the  United  States.  Tybo, 
too,  is  making  rapid  strides  in  the  way  of  advancement.  The 
product  of  these  two  districts  falls  but  little  short  of  that  of  Mis- 
souri,  Iowa  and  Illinois  combined. 

The  deposits  of  borax  in  Churchill  and  Esmeralda  counties  are 
sufficient  to  supply  the  demands  of  the  world,  but  being  situated 
so  far  away  from  the  markets,  the  expense  of  transportation  and 
the  reduced  price  of  the  article  have  placed  a limit  upon  its  pro- 
duction. Fish  lake,  Columbus  and  Teal’s  Marsh  have  an  almost 


3/8 


MINERALS  AND  METALS  OF  NEVADA. 


inexhaustible  supply,  and  their  thousands  of  acres  must  some  day 
be  profitable  to  the  owners. 

The  salt  deposits  are  beyond  computation.  In  Humboldt, 
Churchill,  Esmeralda,  Lander,  White  Pine  and  Lincoln  counties 
there  are  beds  of  salt  covering  thousands  of  acres  and  of  un- 
known depths.  The  waters  of  North  Soda  lake,  in  Churchill 
county,  270  feet  in  depth,  and  covering  an  area  of  400  acres,  con- 
tain about  thirty-three  per  cent,  of  soda.  Sulphur  is  found  in 
immense  deposits  in  Humboldt  county,  and  in  a comparatively 
pure  state.  Antimony  in  paying  quantities  is  found  in  a dozen 
districts,  and  mines  rich  in  copper  are  being  worked  in  Lander 
and  White  Pine  counties.  Cinnabar,  occurring  in  brilliant  red 
crystals,  and  also  in  amorphous  masses,  is  found  in  Washoe  and 
Nye  counties.  Gypsum,  plumbago,  manganese,  cobalt,  arsenic, 
magnesia,  alum,  nickel,  nitre,  iron  of  good  quality,  coal  in  small 
quantities,  isinglass — such  are  some  of  the  mineral  products  of 
Nevada,  which  will,  in  the  future,  produce  some  revenue  to  the 
people  and  State. 

As  was  to  be  expected,  the  great  falling  off  in  the  yield  of  the 
mines  in  the  years  1879  and  1880  has  raised  the  question  whether 
they  are  approaching  exhaustion,  or  whether  there  is  to  be  a still 
more  prosperous  future  for  them.  All  past  analogies  in  silver 
mining,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  forbid  the  idea  of  their  ex- 
haustion ; the  only  real  question  is  whether  means  can  be  devised 
to  make  the  mining  of  low  grade  ores  profitable  when  they  are 
brought  from  a depth  of  3,000  or  3,200  feet  below  the  surface, 
where  constant  pumping  of  the  very  hot  water  from  these  great 
depths  is  required,  and  the  temperature  of  the  lower  levels  is 
156°  Fahrenheit,  and  the  men  can  only  work  twenty  minutes  and 
rest  twenty  in  four-hour  shifts.  If  these  lower  levels  yield  silver 
ores  assaying  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  ounces  to  the  ton,  the 
working,  even  under  these  disadvantageous  conditions,  may  be 
fairly  profitable ; but  where  the  yield  is  only  from  fourteen  to 
twenty-two  ounces,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  the  margin  is  clearly 
too  narrow  to  permit  any  considerable  profit,  and  must  in  most 
cases  result  in  an  eventual  loss. 


OUR  WESJERN  EMPIRE. 


379 


On  this  question  of  the  permanency  of  the  mineral  production 
from  the  mines  now  opened,  the  able  and  accomplished  State 
Mineralogist,  after  a historical  review  of  all  the  great  silver  mines 
of  Europe  and  America,  exhibiting  their  periods  of  decadence 
and  revival,  concludes  his  essay  as  follows: 

“The  history  of  all  these  European  and  American  mines  has 
been  the  same.  They  were  discovered  early ; they  have  had 
their  times  of  depression  and  times  of  extraordinary  production  ; 
they  have  had  their  bonanzas  and  their  barren  levels ; they  have 
been  abandoned  at  one  time  and  energetically  worked  at  another, 
but  throughout  all  the  ages  they  have  continued  to  be  productive 
to  the  present  time,  and  without  doubt  will  still  continue  to  play 
an  important  part  in  the  mining  industries  of  the  world  in  the 
future.  One  thousand  years  ago  the  Austrian  miner  descended 
the  same  shaft  which  the  living  descend  to-day ; for  centuries  to 
come,  the  huge  piles  of  waste  rock  will  grow  higher  and  more 
rugged  on  the  Saxon  plains.  Empires  have  risen  and  fallen  ; 
rulers  have  passed  from  history  since  the  mines  of  Mexico  and 
South  America  began  to  be  worked;  twenty  centuries  have  not 
exhausted  the  mineral  wealth  of  Spain.  Reasoning  from  these 
facts,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  the  mines  of  Nevada  are  far  from 
being  worked  out.  When  the  character  of  our  mines  is  com- 
pared with  those  of  other  countries,  the  product  is  found  to  be 
small,  and  considering  the  extent  of  territory  as  yet  undeveloped, 
the  amount  of  prospecting  done  has  not  been  great.  But  when 
a larger  population  shall  have  permanently  settled  here ; when 
men  shall  be  satisfied  with  smaller  gains,  and  capital  shall  be 
more  interested  in  the  work,  then  grander  and  more  remunera- 
tive results  may  be  expected  than  any  which  have  yet  been  ob- 
tained. The  new  level  opened  by  the  Sutro  Tunnel  insures  the 
working  of  the  Comstock  lode  for  an  indefinite  period  in  the 
future,  and  although  the  results  have  not  thus  far  equalled  expec- 
tations, yet  there  is  sufficient  encouragement  to  continued  perse- 
verance in  this  greatest  enterprise  of  modern  mining,  and  that 
perseverance  cannot  long  fail  to  reap  an  ample  reward.” 


380  MINING  PRODUCTION  OF  COUNTIES. 

Mining  Industry. — Twelve  of  the  fourteen  counties  of  Nevada 
have  or  have  had  mines  of  considerable  importance.  We  will 
review  them  briefly  in  alphabetical  order,  showing  the  number  of 
the  mines  and  the  product  from  them  in  1877  and  1878,  the  latest 
detailed  report  we  have  been  able  to  obtain : 

Elko  county  had,  in  1877,  seven  mines,  and  in  addition  an  estab- 
lishment where  the  tailings  of  the  Leopard  mine  were  worked 
over,  yielding  in  that  year  ^24,799.  The  entire  yield  of  these 
mines  in  1877  was  $1,075,968.86.  In  1878  but  two  mines  of  the 
seven  were  worked,  but  three  new  ones  had  been  opened,  and 
the  yield  for  three-quarters  of  the  year  was  $941,918.94,  indicating 
for  the  entire  year  a considerably  larger  yield  from  the  five  mines 
than  from  the  whole  seven  the  previous  year,  although  four  of 
the  five  had  only  been  worked  for  six  months. 

The  Sutro  Tunnel,  though  its  entrance  is  in  Lyon  county,  was 
constructed  to  drain  the  mines  on  the  Comstock  lode.  It  is  over 
four  miles  in  length,  and  follows  the  ramifications  of  the  principal 
mines,  which  it  will  drain  to  the  depth  of  about  2,000  feet,  and 
the  deepest  mines  will  only  have  to  pump  their  surplus  water 
from  1,000  to  1,200  feet  to  have  it  drawn  off  by  this  channel. 
The  tunnel  also  contains  railroad  tracks  to  facilitate  the  removal 
of  ores  from  the  mines.  Its  cost  was  about  $6,000,000.  The 
Tunnel  Company  own  some  mines  on  this  lode.  While  its  suc- 
cess has  not  thus  far  been  so  great  as  was  hoped,  it  must  event- 
ually greatly  enhance  the  value  of  the  mining  property  connected 
with  the  Comstock  lode. 

Zoology. — The  wild  animals  of  Nevada  are  those  of  California, 
except  those  which  find  their  homes  in  the  sea  or  along  the  shores 
of  the  Pacific.  The  grizzly  bear  is  the  monarch  of  the  forest,  and 
the  black  and  the  Mexican  bear  are  sufficiently  numerous ; the 
cougar  or  panther,  the  wild  cat,  the  gray  wolf  and  the  whole 
marten  tribe,  the  lynx,  skunk  and  raccoon  are  abundant.  Of 
game  animals,  the  elk,  two  species  of  deer,  and  possibly  the 
moose,  though  that  animal  is  very  rare,  Rocky  Mountain  sheep 
or  big  horn  ; rabbits,  squirrels,  the  sewellel,  the  gopher  and  other 
rodents  are  so  numerous  as  to  give  annoyance.  Birds  of  prey, 
song  birds  and  game  birds  are  plentiful.  Reptiles  are  of  the 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


381 

same  genera  and  species  as  in  California.  Trout,  and  salmon 
trout  are  found  in  the  larger  lakes,  but  the  smaller  lakes  are  too 
alkaline  for  fish.  Southern  Nevada  has  few  animals. 

Agricidtin^al  Pi'odiictions. — While  Nevada  is  essentially  a 
mining  State,  and  contains  but  a comparatively  small  proportion 
of  arable  land,  she  can,  by  the  aid  of  irrigation,  raise  a sufficient 
quantity  of  cereals,  root  crops,  etc.,  to  supply  her  small  popula- 
tion, and  by  turning  attention  to  stock-raising  soon  export  many 
thousand  head  of  cattle. 

The  soil  of  the  State  is  generally  a loam,  most  fertile  where 
the  underlying  rock  is  limestone,  but  nearly  everywhere  suffi- 
ciently so  to  reward  the  labors  of  the  husbandman,  where  water 
can  be  obtained  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation.  The  immense 
stretches  of  barren  wastes  so  often  seen  are  only  so  because  of 
the  want  of  moistening  showers  of  rain,  and  streams  sufficiently 
numerous  to  supply  the  demands  for  agriculture.  As  a large 
proportion  of  the  land  is  much  better  adapted  to  grazing  than  to 
tillage,  much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  raising  of  live-stock, 
and  the  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  goats  bred  here  are  of  excellent 
quality.  The  winter  feed,  consisting  of  bunch-grass  and  white 
sage,  furnishes  the  best  of  sustenance  for  stock,  so  that,  with  rare 
exceptions,  is  any  provision  made  or  stores  of  fodder  laid  up  for 
winter  use.  During  the  summer  months  the  pasturage  in  the 
vicinity  of  springs,  brooks  and  creeks  on  mountain  sides  and  in 
the  canons  supplies  the  feed,  but  when  winter  comes,  the  herds 
and  flocks  feed  miles  away  from  water  in  the  valleys.  The  north- 
ern and  eastern  sections  of  the  State  are  the  best  adapted  for 
grazing.  Many  of  the  loftiest  mountains  are  covered  with  a spe- 
cies of  bunch-grass  peculiar  to  those  localities.  The  table-lands 
and  dry  valleys  in  many  places  are  covered  with  the  white  sage, 
which  makes  the  best  of  winter  feed  for  stock.  When  growing  in 
the  spring  and  summer,  this  sage  is  bitter  and  not  eaten,  but 
when  the  frosts  of  fall  and  winter  come  it  is  tender,  sweet  and 
nutritious,  and  better  liked  by  stock  than  other  kinds  of  feed.  So 
extensive  has  the  business  of  stock-raising  become  that  now  the 
supply  far  exceeds  the  wants  of  the  population,  and  thousands  of 
steers  and  beef  cattle  are  yearly  shipped  by  railroad  to  the  markets 


382  VARIED  PRODUCTS  OF  SOUTHERN  VALLEYS. 

of  California.  The  agricultural  lands  of  the  State  are  small  in 
proportion  to  the  area,  though  in  all  of  the  valleys  where  are 
found  streams  of  water  large  tracts  of  land  are  brought  under 
cultivation,  and  the  crops  produced  are  very  superior  in  character. 
The  best  of  these  arable  lands  are  found  in  Carson,  Eagle,  Mason, 
Washoe,  Truckee,  Humboldt,  Reese  River,  Owyhee,  Lamoille, 
Ruby,  Steptoe,  Spring,  White  River,  Snake,  Panaca,  Pahranagat, 
Paradise,  Muddy  and  Los  Vegas  Valleys.  There  are  hundreds 
of  other  smaller  valleys,  and  in  many  of  them  the  soil  is  quite  as 
productive,  though  less  water  is  found;  and  there  is  no  land  in 
the  State  but  what  is  benefited,  for  agriculture,  by  irrigation.  In 
the  northern  and  central  valleys  all  the  grains,  vegetables,  and 
fruits  of  a temperate  climate  are  cultivated  with  success.  In  the 
southern  valleys  the  proportion  of  fertile  land  is  much  less  than 
in  other  sections  of  the  State,  except  about  springs  and  streams 
of  water.  The  country  is  chiefly  a desert.  The  scarcity  of  water 
is  a noticeable  feature,  but  where  there  is  sufficient  for  irrigation, 
as  in  the  Muddy  and  Las  Vegas  Valleys,  the  farmer  is  abundantly 
rewarded  for  his  labor.  Fruit  trees,  embracing  nearly  every  va- 
riety known  in  both  temperate  and  tropical  climates,  are  culti- 
vated. Growing  here  side  by  side  are  seen  the  olive  and  the 
plum,  orange  and  apple,  lemon  and  peach,  fig  and  apricot,  pome- 
granate and  pear,  and  the  walnut  and  pepper.  Grapes  also  grow 
to  perfection.  The  vineyards  produce  as  perfectly  ripened  and 
delicious  grapes  as  the  most  favored  localities  in  California  and 
France.  Cotton  and  sorghum  have  been  cultivated  quite  ex- 
tensively; one  acre  of  land  yielding  as  much  as  a thousand 
pounds  of  the  former.  Melons,  squashes  and  beans  also  grow 
abundantly,  as  well  as  corn  and  all  the  smaller  grains.  Some  of 
the  hardier  vegetables,  as  potatoes,  do  not  thrive  so  well.  Two 
crops  are  raised  yearly  on  the  same  land.  It  is  first  sown  in 
small  grains,  as  wheat,  barley,  rye  and  oats,  which  are  harvested 
about  the  first  of  June.  It  is  then  planted  in  corn,  beans,  pota- 
toes, beets,  cabbage,  onions,  squashes,  melons  and  all  other  vari- 
eties of  garden  vegetables.  The  mezquit  bushes,  which  grow  in 
some  of  these  southern  valleys,  furnish  a very  nutritious  bean, 
which  all  animals  feed  upon  as  soon  as  the  grasses  die  in  the  fall. 


HISTORICAL  DATA  AND  CONCLUSION. 


383 

Historical  Data. — Nevada  is  a part  of  the  region  acquired 
from  Mexico  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo  in  February, 
1848.  It  was  at  first  a part  of  California  Territory,  and  on  the 
admission  of  that  State  into  the  Union,  was  made  a part  of  Utah 
Territory.  It  was  set  off  as  the  Territory  of  Nevada,  in  March, 
1861,  but  had  not  then  so  large  an  area  as  it  has  now.  A part 
of  its  present  boundaries  on  the  east  were  fixed  in  1862  ; it  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  a State  in  1864,  and  received  some 
further  accessions  of  territory  in  1866.  It  furnished  its  quota  of 
soldiers  to  the  civil  war,  and  sent  material  aid  to  the  Sanitary 
Commission  to  the  extent  of  ^51,000. 

Conchision. — Nevada  does  not  offer  a very  promising  field  for 
immigration.  Its  great  mining  operations  are  in  the  hands  of 
wealthy  capitalists,  and  are  not  at  the  present  time  very  promis- 
ing; there  are  probably  new  lodes  and  new  placers  which  may 
prove  very  rich ; but  only  capitalists  will  be  able  to  hold  or  work 
them. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
mw  MEXICO. 

New  Mexico  is  a central  Territory  of  the  southern  tier  of 
States  and  Territories  of  “Our  Western  Empire."  It  is  a portion 
of  the  territory  ceded  by  Mexico  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe- 
Hidalgo,  in  Eebruary,  1848,  and,  previous  to  the  cession,  had 
been  a State  of  that  republic.  It  was  created  a Territory  by  Act 
of  Congress,  September  9th,  1850,  but  the  Territorial  government 
was  not  organized  till  March  i,  1851.  • 

The  Territory  extends  from  103"^  to  109°  of  west  longitude 
from  Greenwich,  and  from  31°  20'  to  37°  north  latitude.  It  is 
bounded  by  Colorado  on  the  north,  by  Texas  and  the  Indian 
Territory  on  the  east,  Texas  and  Old  Mexico  on  the  south,  and 
Arizona  on  the  west.  It  is  almost  a perfect  square,  a small  tract 
projecting  into  Mexico,  which  was  acquired  by  the  Gadsden 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  NEIV  MEXICO. 


384 

treaty,  in  the  southwest,  being  the  only  departure  from  complete- 
ness in  its  proportions.  This  tract  contains  some  noted  mineral 
springs,  but  otherwise  is  not  at  present  known  to  be  of  much 
value.  The  greatest  length  of  the  Territory  from  north  to  south 
is  390  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west  341  miles. 
Its  area  is  121,201  square  miles,  or  77,568,640  acres. 

Mountam  Chams. — The  mountains  enter  the  Territory  from 
Colorado  in  two  ranges,  the  eastern,  lying  wholly  east  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  being  a continuation  of  the  Sangre  de  Cristo,  or  Park 
range,  of  Colorado,  and  continuing  below  the  37th  parallel  under 
the  name  of  the  Raton  Mountains.  The  whole  range  is  high,  and 
numerous  elevated  summits  and  lofty  peaks,  as  well  as  continuous 
ridges  of  great  height,  are  found  in  its  course;  but  these  termi- 
nate abruptly  a short  distance  below^  Santa  Fe,  and  only  an  ele- 
vated and  somewhat  broken  plateau  remains  of  this  range  from 
that  point  to  the  Texan  boundary.  The  other  range,  which 
seems  to  be  a continuation  of  the  San  Juan  and  Uncompahgre 
Mountains  of  Colorado,  consists  of  many  detached  mountains  of 
lower  altitude,  with  passes  between  them  of  only  5,000  or  6,000 
feet  in  height.  They  are  known  in  New  Mexico  as  the  Sierra 
Madre,  and  form  the  connecting  link  between  the  lofty  and  rugged 
mountains  of  Western  Colorado  and  the  equally  lofty  Sierra 
Madre  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico.  The  various  groups  of  these 
detached  mountains  with  the  valleys  between  them  fill  up  almost 
the  entire  region  west  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Though  the  eastern 
mountains  are  much  the  highest,  yet  here,  as  in  Southern  Colo- 
rado, the  western  and  lower  mountains  form  the  water-shed  be- 
tween the  waters  flowing  to  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans. 
There  are  a chain  of  hills  of  moderate  elevation  along  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Rio  Pecos,  which  form  the  boundary  on  the  west  side 
of  the  vastildano  Estacado,  or  Staked  Plain. 

Topography. — The  face  of  the  country  is  diversified  by  moun- 
tains, valleys,  plains,  and  high  level  plateaux  or  mesas  ; similarity 
of  climate,  character  and  resources,  pertaining  to  a large  portion 
of  the  country,  excepting  in  the  highest  ranges  and  lowest  valleys. 
In  portions  of  the  Territory  the  surface  is  much  broken  and  dis- 
rupted by  chains  of  mountains,  preserving  a general  direction  of 
67 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


385 

north  and  south.  Intervening,  there  are  large  areas  of  table 
lands,  bisected  by  many  large  and  small  valleys  of  unsurpassed 
fertility,  and  susceptible  of  the  highest  state  of  cultivation.  The 
valleys  have  a mean  altitude  above  the  sea  of  4,500  feet,  and  the 
mountains  on  either  side  of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  and  Rio 
Pecos  of  6,000  to  8,000  feet.  In  the  more  northerly  portions  of 
the  Territory  they  rise  to  10,000  and  12,000  feet. 

Rivers  mid  Lakes. — The  rivers  of  New  Mexico  contribute  to 
both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  slopes.  The  eastern  is  watered  and 
drained  by  the  Canadian  and  its  tributaries  into  the  Mississippi, 
and  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  and  its  tributaries  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  The  western  slope  is  watered  and  drained  by  the 
Colorado  of  the  West  and  Rio  Gila,  and  their  tributaries,  into  the 
Gulf  of  California.  The  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  takes  its  rise  in 
the  high  mountains,  north  of  the  boundary  line  of  New  Mexico, 
where  it  is  fed  by  numerous  springs  and  the  meltings  of  the  an- 
nual snows,  and  augmented  by  tributaries,  watering  and  draining 
a vast  area  of  some  of  the  finest  farming  and  grazing  lands  on 
the  continent.  It  flows  south  through  the  western  division  of  the 
Territory,  a broad,  beautiful  river,  enriching  with  its  turbid  water 
a valley  more  than  400  miles  long  and  many  miles  in  breadth — 
one  of  the  most  wonderful  for  fertility  and  beauty  in  the  world. 
The  Rio  Pecos,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  principal  mountains, 
has  its  source  in  the  mountains  near  Santa  Fe,  watering  and 
draining,  through  its  numerous  tributaries,  an  immense  district 
of  country,  and  flowing  through  its  eastern  division  into  Texas, 
through  a valley  only  second  in  importance  to  that  of  the  Rio 
Grande  del  Norte,  with  which  it  forms  a junction  below  the 
southern  boundary.  The  Canadian  river  flows  to  the  east,  and 
through  its  affluents  waters  and  drains  the  entire  northeastern 
part  of  the  country.  The  Rio  San  Juan,  formed  by  the  Rio  Pie- 
dra,  Rio  Los  Pinos,  Rio  Florida,  Rio  de  Los  Animas,  Rio  Navajo, 
Rio  de  La  Plata  and  other  smaller  streams,  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  rivers  in  the  West,  watering  and  draining  all  the 
southwestern  slope  of  the  San  Juan  Mountains.  In  the  south- 
west the  Rio  Mimbres,  Agate  creek.  Bear  creek,  and  the  San 
Francisco  river,  together  with  the  head  waters  of  the  Rio  Gila, 
■water  and  drain  the  region. 


THE  NEW  A/EM /CAN  CL /A/ATE. 


386 

East  of  these,  and  flowing  from  either  side  of  a system  of 
detached  mountains,  occupying  nearly  the  longitudinal  centre 
of  the  Territory,  and  extending  through  its  entire  length  from 
north  to  south,  terminating  in  the  Guadalupe  Mountains  on 
the  borders  of  Texas,  are  a large  number  of  small  rivers  and 
creeks,  supplying  a large  area  of  table  lands  and  valleys,  as  well 
as  a portion  of  the  Terraces  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  Rio  Pecos 
with  pure  living  water.  Besides  these,  almost  every  mountain 
and  hill  is  supplied  with  numerous  springs  of  sparkling  cold 
water ; also,  there  are  many  good  springs  found  in  the  low  de- 
pressions and  valleys  many  miles  distant  from  the  mountains. 
Thus,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  water  supply  is  far  more  ample 
than  the  casual  observer  or  stranger  would  infer  from  an  exami- 
nation of  maps  drafted  years  ago,  or  a supposition  derived  from 
vague  reports  of  the  arid  climate  and  light  rainfalls. 

Climate. — There  is  great  diversity  of  climate,  owing  to  differ- 
ences in  latitude  and  altitude  between  different  portions  of  the 
country.  Almost  any  degree  of  temperature  may  be  attained  by 
change  of  locality,  there  being  a wide  range  of  extremes  in  tem- 
perature. In  the  lower  plateaux,  the  summer  days  are  warm,  but 
not  debilitating,  because  the  atmosphere  is  so  dry  that  perspira- 
tion is  rapidly  absorbed.  The  nights  are  always  cool  and 
bracing.  The  climate  throughout  the  Territory  is  so  mild  and 
equable,  combining  dryness  and  purity,  particularly  so  on  the 
plateaux  of  mean  elevation,  that  many  persons  afflicted  with  pul- 
monary and  other  diseases  of  a like  character,  have  tested  its 
salubrity  with  marked  benefit,  and  in  many  cases  permanent 
cure.  Those  who  have  lived  in  this  delightful  climate  for  a few 
years  believe  it  to  be  the  healthiest  location  in  the  United  States. 

Mr.  Zimri  L.  White,  the  able  correspondent  of  the  New  York 
Tribune,  writing  from  the  Territory  in  September,  1880,  says  : 

“ The  summer  climate  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Territory  is 
delightful.  At  Santa  Fe,  which  has  an  altitude  of  about  7,000 
feet,  the  nights  are  always  so  cool  that  heavy  blankets  upon  the 
beds  are  comfortable,  and  the  heat  at  midday,  although  sometimes 
great,  is  never  oppressive.  Americans  here  dress  in  heavy 
woollen  fabrics,  both  for  outside  and  underwear,  at  all  seasons 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


387 


of  the  year.  I am  told  that  the  winters  are  mild  and  sunny,  with 
comparatively  little  snow.  The  low  altitudes  in  the  central  and 
southern  portions  of  the  Territory  are  very  hot  and  dry,  but  on 
account  of  the  absence  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  and  the  ex- 
ceedingly rapid  evaporation,  the  apparent  intensity  of  the  heat  is 
much  reduced.  The  temperature  in  the  mountains  is  always  and 
everywhere  delightful. 

New  Mexico  as  a Health  Resort. — New  Mexico  has  a deservedly 
high  reputation  as  a sanitary  resort  in  pulmonary  diseases,  and 
that  its  real  character  and  the  diseases  which  are  benefited  by  a 
residence  there  may  be  better  understood,  we  present  the  fol- 
lowing testimony  from  eminent  physicians  and  others  long  resi- 
dent in  the  Territory. 

Lewis  Kennan,  M.  D.,  an  eminent  physician  of  Silver  City,  New 
Mexico,  twenty-seven  years  resident  in  the  Territory,  says:  ‘Tt 
is  certain  that  even  when  the  lungs  were  irreparably  diseased, 
very  much  benefit  has  resulted.  Invalids  have  come  here  with 
the  system  falling  into  tubercular  ruin,  and  their  lives  have  been  as- 
tonishingly prolonged  by  the  dry,  bracing  atmosphere.  The  most 
amazing  results,  however,  are  produced  in  warding  off  the  ap- 
proaches of  phthisis,  and  I am  sure  there  are  but  few  cases  which, 
if  sent  here  before  the  malady  is  well  advanced,  would  fail  to  be 
arrested.  Where  hardening  has  occurred  or  even  considerable 
cavities  have  been  detected  in  the  lungs,  relief  altogether  sur- 
prising has  taken  place.  The  lowest  death  rate  from  tubercular 
disease  in  America  is  found  in  New  Mexico,  notwithstanding  the 
large  number  of  cases  of  that  disease  who  resort  thither  for  heal- 
ing. The  census  of  1870  gives  twenty-five  per  cent,  as  the  death 
rate  from  this  disease  in  New  England,  fourteen  in  Minnesota, 
from  five  to  six  in  the  different  Southern  States,  and  three  per 
cent,  in  Ne\\^  Mexico.  I have  never  known  a case  of  bronchitis 
or  asthma  in  the  Territory  that  was  not  greatly  improved  or 
altogether  cured.  For  rheumatism  and  diseases  of  the  heart 
with  or  without  a rheumatic  origin,  I would  not  recommend  this 
climate.  Valvular  difficulty  in  that  organ  is  invariably  made 
worse.” 


MINERAL  WEALTH  OF  NEW  MEXICO. 


388 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — The  surface  rocks  of  the  great  pla- 
teau, which  comprises  so  large  a portion  of  the  Territory,  belong 
to  the  cretaceous  period,  except  those  in  the  southwest  and  west, 
which  are  a part  of  the  plateau  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  and  are  en- 
tirely of  the  eozoic  period.  The  summits  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain system,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  are  also  eozoic, 
but  the  peaks  are  capped  with  metamorphic  rocks,  chiefly  porphy- 
ry, trap  and  basalt.  Besides  these  exceptions,  there  are  three  con- 
siderable tracts  which  are  volcanic,  and  covered  with  lava,  which 
is,  apparently,  only  a few  centuries  old  ; the  first  of  these  tracts  is 
in  the  Zuni  Mountains,  between  the  Rio  Puerco  and  the  Rio 
San  Jose,  including  Mount  Taylor;  the  second  is  east  of  and 
parallel  to  the  Rio  Grande ; it  is  nearly  140  miles  in  length ; the 
third  is  near  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Territory,  along  the 
west  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  extending  to  the  Rio  Chama. 
The  tract  east  of  the  Rio  Grande  is  called  Mai  Pais  (“  bad  coun- 
try ”),  and  besides  the  lava,  has  a broad  expanse  of  volcanic  sand, 
alternating  with  salt  marshes. 

The  valleys  of  the  Rio  Pecos  and  of  the  Canadian  river  and  its 
branches  are  triassic  or  Jurassic,  and  at  some  points  are  under- 
laid with  coal  at  such  depths  as  to  be  accessible.  The  valley  of 
the  Rio  Grande  above  the  thirty-fifth  parallel  is  tertiary:  below 
that  parallel  it  partakes  of  the  general  character  of  the  plateau, 
and  is  cretaceous.  The  foot-hills  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Gua- 
dalupe Mountains  are  triassic.  There  are  two  considerable  tracts 
of  tertiary  in  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  Territory,  the  larger 
of  the  two  lying  between  the  head-waters  of  the  Cimmaron  and 
the  north  fork  of  the  Canadian  rivers,  and  the  smaller  between 
two  of  the  affluents  of  the  Canadian. 

Mineral  Wealth. — The  geological  formations  of  New  Mexico 
form  an  extremely  interesting  study,  as  well  on  account  of 
their  peculiarities  as  of  the  vast  quantities  of  minerals,  especially 
the  precious  metals,  which  are  contained  in  some  of  them.  The 
syenitic  rocks  of  the  mountains  which  traverse  the  central  plat- 
eau between  the  Pecos  and  the  Rio  Grande,  and  the  carbonifer- 
ous limestones  found  on  the  flanks  and  sometimes  on  the  ridges 
of  these  mountains,  are  both  traversed  by  mineral-bearing  lodes. 


OUK  WESTERN  EMPIRE., 


389 

In  the  sandstone  formation  beds  of  lignite  and  bituminous  coal 
from  three  to  five  feet  in  thickness  are  found,  alternating  with 
layers  of  iron  ore  of  good  quality  and  fire-clay.  In  the  Old  Pla- 
cer Mountains  and  elsewhere,  mines  of  anthracite  of  a superior 
quality  have  been  opened.  Marls,  gypsum,  and  other  valuable 
earths  are  abundant  and  easy  of  access,  but  little  has  been  done 
to  develop  the  deposits.  Zinc,  manganese,  quicksilver  and  some 
minor  minerals  occur.  In  the  Placer  mountains,  and  at  several 
other  points,  especially  near  Pinos  Altos  and  Embudo,  iron  is 
worked.  Lead  is  found  in  the  Pinos  Altos  mines.  In  the  Organ 
mountains,  and  at  other  points.  Copper  is  even  more  abundant, 
and  some  of  the  mines  yield  large  results.  The  chief  deposits 
worked  are  those  of  the  Manzano,  Magollon,  and  Magdalena 
mountains. 

Turquoise  of  rare  beauty  has  been  found  in  the  Cerillos  Moun- 
tains, about  twenty  miles  southwest  of  Santa  Fe,  and  mines  of  it 
were  worked  with  great  profit  before  the  Indian  revolt  in  1 680. 
The  finest  turquoise  in  Europe,  one  of  the  jewels  of  the  Spanish 
crown,  was  obtained  in  these  mountains  more  than  two  centuries 
ago. 

Hot  springs  and  other  mineral  springs  of  great  medicinal  virtue, 
abound  in  New  Mexico.  Governor  Wallace  says  that  excellent 
hot  springs  have  been  discovered  at  Fernandez,  in  Taos  county  ; 
at  Las  Vegas,  San  Miguel  county;  at  Ojo  Caliente,  In  Rio  Arriba 
county;  near  Jemez, in  Bernalillo  county;  near  Fort  McRae,  So- 
corro county ; Fort  Selden,  Dona  Ana  county  ; and  at  Mimbres, 
in  Grant  county.  Those  at  Jemez  are  probably  unexcelled  in 
the  world.  At  Las  Vegas  elaborate  preparations  are  in  progress 
for  the  care  and  entertainment  of  guests  and  invalids.  Any  and 
all  these  springs  are  equal  in  curative  qualities,  if  not  superior,  to 
those  in  Arkansas.  They  have  certainly  the  attraction  of  an 
unsurpassed  climate. 

In  this  connection  mention  may  be  made  of  the  soda  springs, 
of  which  there  are  several.  One,  east  of  Isleta  eighteen  or  twenty 
miles,  is  particularly  worthy  of  notice  as  yielding  seltzer  quite 
equal  to  the  best  imported  article. 

But  the  chief  mineral  wealth  of  this  rich  Territory  is  contained 


THE  ANTHRACITE  COAL  OF  NEW  MEXICO. 


390 

in  its  gold  and  silver  mines,  some  of  which  have  been  worked 
since  remote  times.  The  earliest  Spanish  discoverers  found  such 
convincing  proofs  of  the  richness  of  the  gold  and  silver  deposits 
that  they  gave  to  the  country  its  present  name  from  the  resem- 
blance to  the  mineral  regions  of  old  Mexico.  Throughout  the 
periods  of  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  occupancy  the  precious 
metals  were  worked,  and  even  with  the  rude  appliances  and  de- 
sultory methods  of  those  peoples,  wonderful  results  were  obtained. 
Capital,  abundant  water  power  and  railroad  communication,  are 
the  three  desiderata  for  the  successful  development  of  the  rich 
mines  of  this  country,  which  are  believed  to  rival  the  most  pro- 
ductive deposits  known.  The  chief  gold  fields  now  operated  are 
those  of  Colfax,  Grant,  Santa  Fe  and  Bernalillo  counties,  and  of 
the  Carrizo,  Sierra  Blanca,  Patos,  Jicarilla  and  Magdalena  Moun- 
tains, but  these  are  only  a few  of  the  many  regions  in  which  gold 
is  known  to  exist.  So  far  little  more  than  the  placers  have  been 
i:ouched,  while  the  great  resources  of  the  quartz  lodes  still  await 
the  advent  of  machinery,  capital,  and,  above  all,  well-directed 
labor.  The  silver  mines  of  Pinos  Altos,  the  Cerillos,  Sandia  and 
Magdalena  Mountains,  formerly  so  productive,  have  been  worked 
in  a perfunctory  way,  but  without  any  organized  system  of  pro- 
cedure, and  the  production  is  now  small.  A few  words  should 
be  said  in  regard  to  the  coal  deposits  of  New  Mexico.  The 
greater  part  of  the  coal  deposits  throughout  “Our  Western  Em- 
pire” are  bituminous,  and  even  where  theyare  called  anthracites, 
they  are  generally  only  a little  harder  or  denser  veins  of  the  bitu- 
minous coal,  and  at  most  can  be  regarded  as  only  semi-anthracites. 
Some  geologists  have  boldly  declared  that  there  was  no  anthracite 
west  of  the  Mississippi  river,  and  have  predicted  that  nothing  of 
the  kind  would  ever  be  discovered  there ; but  they  are  certainly 
in  error.  Whether  the  so-called  anthracites  of  Southwestern 
Colorado,  of  Texas,  of  Arizona  and  of  Utah,  will  prove  to  be 
true  anthracites,  maybe  a question  until  we  have  more  and  more 
careful  and  thorough  analyses  of  them  ; but  that  there  is  anthracite 
coal  in  Northwest  Washington  Territory,  and  that  it  is  abundant 
in  New  Mexico,  seems  to  be  proved  beyond  the  possibility  of  a 
doubt.  The  only  locality  where  it  has  thus  far  been  found  is 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


391 


among  the  foot-hills  of  the  Placer  Mountains,  about  thirty  miles 
south-southwest  of  Santa  Fe.  The  formation  is  tertiary,  but  it 
has  been  subjected  at  various  times  to  volcanic  action,  as  the 
lava  and  metamorphic  rocks  plainly  indicate.  Mr.  Z.  L.  White 
examined  these  coal  deposits  very  carefully  in  August,  1880,  and 
though  previously  faithless  in  regard  to  the  existence  of  anthra- 
cite anywhere  in  this  region,  became  fully  satisfied  that  it  was 
anthracite,  and  of  the  very  best  quality.  The  mines  already 
opened  are  on  the  “Ortiz  Grant,”  and  the  coals  in  this,  of  which 
there  are  twenty-seven  veins,  ranging  from  a few  inches  to  more 
than  six  feet  in  thickness,  are  easily  accessible.  The  coal  was 
probably  originally  a lignite  of  excellent  quality  of  the  tertiary, 
but  by  volcanic  action  was  changed  into  anthracite.  Mr.  White 
fortifies  his  opinion  by  the  definition  of  true  anthracite  given  in 
the  best  treatises  on  coal,  and  by  three  analyses  made  by  the  geol- 
ogists of  Lieutenant  Wheeler’s  expedition  in  1875,  by  R.  D.  Owen 
and  E.  T.  Cox  in  1865,  and  by  Professor  J.  L.  Leconte  in  1868, 
and  in  a fourth  column  gives  the  analysis  of  the  Pennsylvania 
anthracites  from  “ Dana’s  Mineralogy.”  The  economic  impor- 
tance of  this  anthracite  coal  to  the  whole  West,  it  being  very  near 
the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  Railroad,  must  be  our  apology 
for  devoting  so  much  space  to  it. 


ANALYSES. 

Constituents.  W.  O.  & C.  Lee.  Penna.  Coal. 

Water 2.10  3.50  2.90 

Gas 6.63  4.50  3.18  3.84 

Fixed  Carbon  ....  86,22  87.00  88.91  87.45 

Ash 5.05  5.00  S.21  7.37 

Totals  . . . 100.00  100.00  100.00  98.66 


“True  anthracite  has  a specific  gravity  of  1.4  to  1.7  ; its  hard- 
ness is  2 to  2.5  ; and  it  contains  85  to  93  percent,  of  fixed  carbon; 
and  volatile  matter,  after  drying,  3 to  6 per  cent.  It  is  amorphous, 
of  conchoidal  fracture,  brittle,  has  a sub-metallic  lustre,  iron  black 
to  grayish  and  brownish  black  color,  and  when  pulverized  forms 
a black  powder.  It  ignites  with  difficulty  and  at  a high  tempera- 
ture, but  when  ignited  produces  an  intense  heat.  This  is  an  exact 
description  of  the  coal  in  the  Ortiz  mines.’' 


392 


A GRICUL  TURAL  PR  OD  UCTIONS. 


Agricultural  p7^oductions, — There  are  in  New  Mexico  from 
18,000,000  to  20,000,000  acres  of  arable  lands,  or  at  least  that 
much  can  be  brought  under  successful  cultivation,  when  a judi- 
cious system  of  irrigating  canals  and  reservoirs  shall  have  been 
constructed.  More  than  three-fourths  of  all  the  waters  of  the 
Territory  run  to  waste  at  present.  The  country  is  admirably 
supplied  with  hundreds  of  natural  basins  on  the  elevated  plateaux, 
where  the  water  of  all  or  nearly  all  the  streams  could  be  stored 
by  means  of  canals  and  ditches.  The  water  supplies  would  com- 
mence accumulating  during  the  early  fall,  and  continue  through 
the  winter,  spring  and  early  summer  rises  or  freshets,  from  the 
melting  snow  in  the  high  mountains.  In  this  way  immense  reser- 
voirs could  be  accumulated,  ample  for  all  purposes. 

The  soil  of  the  valleys  throughout  the  Territory  is  a rich  sandy 
loam,  composed  of  the  disintegrated  matter  of  the  older  rocks 
and  volcanic  ashes.  It  is  light  and  porous  and  of  surprising  fer- 
tility. Corn,  wheat,  oats  and  barley  grow  well  in  all  parts  of  the 
Territory  ; corn  is  a staple  product.  The  cereals  do  best  in  the 
northern  districts  and  elevated  plateaux  ; corn,  vegetables  and  all 
kinds  of  fruit  do  best  in  the  valleys ; corn,  in  the  rich  bottoms, 
along  the  principal  streams,  if  well  cultivated,  may  be  made  to 
yield  over  eighty  bushels  per  acre ; wheat  on  the  uplands  often 
yields  over  fifty  bushels  per  acre,  and  in  portions  of  the  Rio 
Grande  Valley  averages  twenty-five  bushels  under  the  rudest  and 
most  imperfect  culture."^  Farm  lands  in  the  Taos  Valley  and 

* Mr.  White  says  of  the  native  agriculture  : 

“ The  Mexican  and  Indian  methods  of  harvesting  their  grain  are  very  primitive,  similar,  in- 
deed, to  those  of  Eastern  cou*tries  in  Bible  times.  The  wheat  is  cut  by  hand  with  a sickle,  and 
taken,  unbound,  in  carts  to  the  threshing-floor.  This  consists  of  a round  plat  of  level  ground  in 
an  elevated  place,  fifty,  one  hundred,  or  two  hundred  feet  in  diameter,  as  the  farm  is  a large  or 
small  one,  the  surface  of  which  is  pounded  or  trodden  as  hard  as  a cement  floor.  Around  the 
edges  of  this,  tall  poles  are  set  in  the  ground  five  or  six  feet  apart,  forming  a circle.  The  un- 
threshed grain  is  piled  up  loosely  in  the  centre,  and,  when  everything  is  ready,  a thin  layer  is 
raked  down  between  the  central  pile  of  grain  and  the  circle  of  poles,  and  then  a flock  of  goats 
or  sheep,  or  sometimes  of  burros,  or  ponies,  is  driven  around  over  the  grain  until  it  has  all  been 
beaten  out  of  the  heads  by  their  feet.  The  straw  is  then  thrown  outside  of  the  circle  of  poles, 
and  the  wheat  pushed  up  toward  the  centre.  Another  lot  of  the  unthreshed  grain  is  then  raked 
down,  and  the  operation  repeated  until  the  whole  is  threshed.  I was  forcibly  reminded  of  the 
Scriptural  injunction  which  forbade  the  Hebrews  to  muzzle  the  ox  that  trod  out  the  grain.  The 
winnowing  is  also  done  in  the  Biblical  way.  After  the  wheat  has  been  separated  from  the 
straw,  it  is  gathered  up  into  a heap,  and  when  a brisk  breeze  arises  it  is  thi'own  into  the  air  in 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


393 


in  the  vicinity  of  Santa  Fe  have  been  under  cultivation  over  200 
years,  and  in  all  that  time  not  one  ounce  of  fertilizing  material 
has  been  used  to  enrich  them ; yet  there  is  no  perceptible  dimi- 
nution in  crops.  The  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  for 
400  miles  in  length,  averaging  five  miles  in  breadth,  can  all  be 
irrio-ated  with  the  turbid  water  of  the  stream  from  which  its 

o 

name  is  derived.  This  stream,  like  the  Nile,  is  the  sole  reliance 
of  the  farmer;  the  water  is  turbid  with  sediment,  one-fifth  of  its 
weight  at  high  water.  At  such  times,  each  irrigation  is  equal,  if 
not  superior,  to  a coat  of  the  richest  fertilizer.  El-Paso  Valley 
has  been  cultivated  in  this  way  over  265  years. 

The  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  is  admirably  adapted 
to  grape  culture : there  is  probably  no  part  of  the  world  where 
all  the  conditions  of  soil,  humidity  and  temperature  are  united  to 
produce  this  delicious  fruit  in  greater  perfection.  The  frosts  of 
winter  are  just  severe  enough  to  destroy  insects  without  injuring 
the  vines,  and  the  rains  seldom  fall  at  the  season  when  the  plant  is 
flowering,  or  when  the  fruit  is  coming  into  maturity,  and  liable  to 
rot  from  exposure  to  moisture ; as  a result,  the  fruit,  when  ripe, 
has  a thin  skin,  scarcely  any  pulp,  and  is  devoid  of  the  musky 
taste  usual  with  American  grapes.  Grapes  do  well  also  on  the 
lower  valley  of  the  Pecos,  and  in  many  other  parts  of  the 
Territory. 

Mr.  White  says  of  the  grape  culture:  “Grapes  constitute  one 
of  the  principal  crops  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley.  The  commonest 
variety  is  the  Muscat,  from  which  a very  good  wine  is  made. 
The  vineyards  look  like  plantations  of  currant  bushes,  the  vines 

the  teeth  of  the  wind,  which  blows  away  the  chaff  while  the  wheat  falls  by  itself  on  the  clean 
floor.  At  a distance  the  flying  chaff  looks  like  steam  escaping  by  successive  puffs  from  the  ex- 
haust pipe  of  an  engine. 

“ The  Mexicans  and  some  of  the  Indians  are  beginning  to  adopt  modern  farming  implements, 
and  in  a few  years  iron  ploughs  will  probably  have  replaced  the  wooden  ones  that  have  been  in 
use  here  for  centuries,  and  which  are  exactly  like  those  with  which  the  Egyptians  cultivated 
the  valley  of  the  Nile  in  the  time  of  Moses.  I saw  one  of  these  ploughs,  but  as  this  is  not  the 
season  when  the  ground  is  broken  up,  I have  had  no  opportunity  to  observe  its  use.  It  consisted 
simply  of  a crooked  stick,  upon  the  point  of  which  an  iron  point  was  fastened  by  means  of  raw- 
hide  thongs.  The  Pueblo  Indian  carts  are  also  curiosities.  Not  a scrap  of  iron  is  used  in  their 
manufacture.  The  wheels  are  discs  made  of  boards,  with  a clumsy  wooden  hub  on  the  outside. 
The  tire  is  of  raw-hide,  and  the  body  of  the  cart  is  constructed  of  poles  rudely  framed 
together  ” 


394 


I’EGE'J'ABLES  IN  NEH^  MEXICO. 


being  planted  in  rectangular  order,  and  trained  in  the  form  of 
shrubs.  The  fruit  is  delicious,  like  that  of  California,  and  I have 
no  doubt  that  the  wine  crop  of  the  valley  will,  before  many 
years,  become  one  of  the  largest  and  most  profitable  in  the 
Territory.  Archbishop  Lamy,  who  is  a native  of  France,  and 
who,  during  the  almost  third  of  a century  of  his  residence  here, 
has  travelled  thousands  of  miles  every  year  among  the  Mexican 
and  Indian  population  of  New  Mexico,  told  me  that  no  part  of 
California  is  better  adapted  for  the  culture  of  grapes  and  the 
manufacture  of  wine  than  the  Rio  Grande  Valley.  The  natives 
tread  out  the  juice  of  the  grapes  with  their  feet,  as  did  the 
slaves  in  the  great  vineyards  of  classic  times. 

“The  orchards  of  the  valley  are  remarkably  thrifty  and  prolific, 
and  the  fruit  is  large  and  fair.  I never  saw  apple  trees  that 
were  apparently  so  free  from  disease.  The  bark  was  as  bright 
as  though  the  trunks  of  the  trees  had  been  washed  in  lye.  The 
peach  and  plum  trees  are  large  and  full  of  fruit.  The  orchards 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  planted  with  much  regularity,  but 
the  trees  seem  to  have  been  stuck  down  by  the  side  of  the 
acequias,  wherever  they  were  certain  to  have  plenty  of  water.’' 

Cabbages  grow  finely,  often  weighing  from  thirty  to  sixty 
pounds  each.  Onions  also  grow  very  large,  weighing  from  one 
to  two  pounds  each;  those  raised  in  the  Raton  Mountains  are 
said  to  possess  the  finest  flavor.  Irish  potatoes  are  grown  in 
the  northern  districts,  where  they  yield  enormously.  Sweet 
potatoes  are  raised  in  the  Mesilla  Valley,  and  at  Fort  Stanton,  on 
the  Rio  Bonito  and  Ruidoso,  in  Lincoln  county. 

Beets,  radishes,  turnips,  parsnips  and  carrots  grow  well  every- 
where. Beans,  peas  and  tobacco  are  also  grown  successfully ; 
beans  to  the  native  population  are  what  the  potato  is  to  the  Irish. 
Apples  do  well  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  country.  Peaches,  pears 
and  apricots  do  well  from  Bernalillo  down  ; also  on  the  Pecos 
from  Anton  Chico  down  ; melons  of  all  kinds  grow  to  large 
proportions,  and  of  the  most  delicious  flavor. 

Not  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  valleys  of  the  Rio  Grande  or 
Pecos  are  occupied  or  cultivated.  The  same  may  be  said  of  an 
hundred  other  valleys  and  terraces  along  the  large  streams,  and 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


395 

especially  so  of  the  higher  plateaux.  The  most  extensive  settle- 
ments are  confined  to  the  valleys  of  the  principal  streams. 
Those  of  the  Rio  Grande,  Pecos,  and  Mora  contain  the  majority, 
the  balance  being  located  in  the  small  valleys  and  isolated 
districts,  in  and  near  the  mountains,  where  their  pursuits  are 
divided  between  agriculture  and  stock-raising. 

The  only  forage  crop  of  the  grasses  that  has  been  attempted 
here  is  “Alfalfa,”  the  Chilian  or  California  clover;  when 
cultivated  it  yields  an  enormous  crop.  It  grows  well  throughout 
the  Territory,  and  in  the  southern  districts  often  yields  three 
crops  per  annum.  In  a country  where  there  is  such  a profusion 
of  nutritious  grasses,  as  are  indigenous  to  the  mesas  and 
mountain  slopes,  it  is  not  necessary  to  cultivate  forage  crops, 
except  for  the  sustenance  of  farm  animals,  and  those  in  use 
in  the  towns.  Thousands  of  tons  of  grama  grass  are  cut 
annually  to  supply  the  demands  of  military  posts  and  stage 
stations. 

As  a sample  of  what  can  be  done  in  the  valley  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  it  is  only  necessary  to  refer  to  the  beautiful  Mesilla 
Valley ; it  is  seventy  miles  long,  and  embraces  280  square 
miles,  or  179,200  acres,  or  560  farms  of  320  acres  each.  It  is 
one  of  the  richest  and  most  delightful  valleys  in  the  world. 
There  are  farmers  who  settled  in  this  valley  only  fifteen  years 
ago,  without  one  dollar  to  start  with,  who  to-day  are  worth  from 
$50,000  to  $60,000,  and  every  dollar  of  it  made  from  the 
products  of  the  soil.  It  is  the  rival  of  any  portion  of  California 
in  the  raising  of  all  kinds  of  fruit,  and  as  to  grapes  it  is  not  sur- 
passed by  any  district  in  the  world.  In  the  coldest  season  the 
thermometer  never  falls  lower  than  15°  above  zero.  Snow  is 
scarcely  ever  seen.  It  is  a district  that  needs  only  to  be  seen  to 
be  appreciated. 

The  most  valuable  timber  in  New  Mexico  is  the  pine, — its 
growth  principally  confined  to  the  mountain  districts  and  high 
rolling  lands.  Pitch,  yellow  and  spruce  varieties  grow  to  a large 
size,  and  make  excellent  lumber.  Cottonwood,  walnut,  locust, 
box-alder  and  sugar  tree  fringe  the  streams  and  canons  of  the 
mountains.  Also  live  oak  of  small  size,  and  a peculiar  species 


396  SHEEP-FARMING  IN  NEIV  MEXICO. 

of  cedar,  called  here  “juniper.”  It  grows  on  the  upland,  and  to 
large  size,  throughout  the  southern  half  of  the  Territory.  The 
nut-pine,  or  pihon,  is  abundant,  and  makes  good  charcoal  and 
fire-wood.  The  timber  supply  is  ample  for  all  purposes. 

Stock-Raising. — Though  not  as  arid  as  Arizona,  good  water, 
even  in  the  mountains,  is  very  scarce.  On  the  plains  and  mesas 
and  in  the  valleys,  running  water  is  seldom  seen,  and  when  it  is 
found,  it  is  so  strongly  charged  with  alkali  as  not  to  be  drinkable. 
It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  travel  thirty  or  forty  miles  with- 
out seeing  a spring  or  a drop  of  water  in  the  river  courses 
Cattle,  horses  and  sheep  on  the  ranges  often  habitually  go  two 
or  three  days  without  water.  About  twice  a week  they  get 
around  to  some  spot  where  the  bed-rock  of  a stream  rises  to  the 
surface  bringing  the  water  with  it,  remain  in  the  vicinity  over 
night,  and  then  wander  off  perhaps  twenty-five  miles,  returning 
again  about  the  third  day. 

Cattle  and  sheep-raising  is  carried  on  very  successfully  over 
large  areas  in  New  Mexico,  and  although  the  grama  grass  is  so 
thin  that  it  will  not  support  as  many  animals  to  a thousand  acres 
as  the  bunch  grass  of  the  more  northern  Territories,  it  furnishes 
a wonderfully  nutritious  food,  and  the  country  is  by  no  means 
fully  stocked.  There  is  great  room  for  improvement  in  the 
grade  of  all  kinds  of  stock,  but  even  now  the  business  of 
grazing  is  a remarkably  profitable  one.  The  markets  of  Kansas 
and  Colorado  are  easily  accessible  to  New  Mexican  stock-men, 
and  this  has  given  a great  impetus  to  the  business. 

While  there  are  considerable  tracts  in  which  cattle  will  do  well, 
and  the  raising  of  beeves  for  the  market  may  yet  become  a very 
profitable  industry  in  New  Mexico,  yet  for  the  present  and 
probably  for  many  years  to  come  it  will  be  pre-eminently  the 
country  for  sheep-farming.  The  number  of  sheep  in  the 
Territory  is  probably  not  less  than  two  millions,  of  which  half  a 
million  or  more  are  owned  by  the  Navajoes,  an  Indian  tribe 
occupying  its  western  and  northwestern  portions. 

The  Hon.  J.  Francisco  Chaves,  once  a delegate  in  Congress 
from  New  Mexico,  in  a letter  to  General  Brisbin  the  author  of 
“Tlie  Beef  Bonanza,”  says  of  sheep-farming  in  New  Mexico; 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


397 

“Without  having  the  data  before  me,  and  only  judging  from 
what  I know  of  the  Territory  and  of  the  large  sheep-owners  in  it, 
I am  satisfied  that  I do  not  overestimate  the  number  in  stating 
them  at  1,500,000  head  of  ewes.  The  climate  is  exceedingly 
temperate  and  salubrious ; no  diseases,  much  less  those 
affecting  the  skin  or  hoofs,  being  known.  Sheep  in  our  Territory 
are  herded  and  grazed  from  one  portion  of  the  Territory  to 
another  during  the  same  year,  thus  adopting  what  maybe  termed 
the  migratory  plan.  The  climate  is  dry  and  the  soil  is  gravelly, 
producing  the  most  nutritious  grasses  and  shrubs.  Of  the 
former  the  grama  and  bunch  grass,  of  which  there  are  two 
or  three  different  varieties,  and  the  latter  the  various  kinds  of 
sage,  which  make  the  best  and  most  nutritious  of  browsing,  and 
a large  amount  of  underbrush  and  seed  grass  in  the  mountains. 
Were  it  not  for  the  insecurity  of  life  and  property  caused  by  the 
wild,  marauding  tribes  of  Indians,  especially  the  Navajoes,  but  a 
few  years  would  elapse  before  New  Mexico’s  hills  and  plains 
would  be  literally  covered  with  fleecy  flocks.  It  is  but  a fewyears 
back,  and  actually  within  my  own  personal  recollection,  when  nearly 
1,000,000  sheep  were  actually  driven  to  market  to  southern 
Mexico  from  cur  Territory.  At  that  time  sheep  were  worth 
but  twenty-five  cents  per  head,  and  all  those  engaged  in  the 
business  made  money.  That  prosperity  in  the  history  of  New 
Mexico  was  superinduced  by  twelve  years  of  unintermitted 
peace  with  the  Navajoes.  A sheep-raiser  in  New  Mexico  can 
safely  calculate  on  an  increase  of  eighty  per  cent,  at  least.  A 
sheep-raiser  in  New  Mexico,  notwithstanding  the  coarse  quality 
of  wool  of  the  present  flock,  can  herd  his  sheep  and  make  a 
profit  from  the  product  of  his  wool,  and  have  all  the  increase  of 
his  stock  in.  addition  thereto.  I have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that 
New  Mexico  can  fairly  compete  with  Australia,  South  Africa 
and  South  America,  in  the  production  of  cheap  wool.  These 
statements  may  appear  to  you  somewhat  exaggerated,  but  I 
assure  you,  on  the  contrary,  that  they  are  within  the  limits  of 
reasonable  bounds.  I was  born  and  raised  in  New  Mexico,  my 
friends  and  relations  have  always  owned  sheep,  and  I myself 
have  to  a large  extent  been  an  owner  of  that  kind  of  property, 
and  therefore  speak  from  personal  experience.” 


398 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


The  gold  districts  are : The  Moreno  mines,  on  Ute  creek, 
Colfax  county.  One  mine  proprietor  carries  water  to  his  claims 
near  Elizabethtown,  by  ditch  and  flumes  forty-two  miles.  At 
Pinos  Altos  extensive  work  (quartz  mining)  is  going  on  with 
good  returns.  In  this  district,  gold,  silver,  copper,  zinc,  lead  and 
plumbago  are  all  obtainable. 

Objects  of  Interest  m the  Territory. — These  are  of  various 
kinds,  archaeological,  ethnological,  fossil,  volcanic,  and  the  re- 
sults of  glacial  and  erosive  action  of  water.  All  that  portion  of 
New  Mexico  lying  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  belongs  to  the 
great  valley  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada, which  extends  from  Idaho  and  the  eastern  part  of  Oregon 
and  Washington  Territory  through  Utah  and  Nevada,  Western 
Colorado,  Western  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  into  Mexico,  and 
terminates  along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  California.  It 
is  a land  of  lofty  mesas,  deep  and  rugged  canons,  precipitous 
mountains,  and  hot,  dry  plateaux ; a land  of  frequent  drought, 
and  of  terrible  volcanic  action  in  the  past,  and  perhaps  the  not 
distant  past.  There  are  deep  valleys,  where  no  water  capable  of 
sustaining  life  is  to  be  had,  but  where  alkaline  and  sulphurous 
vapors  rise  continually,  and  lofty,  perpendicular  walls  of  por- 
phyry and  trachyte  forbid  escape,  yet  to  remain  there  for  any 
considerable  time  is  certain  death.  Of  such  as  these  are  the  Death 
Valley,  in  Southeastern  California,  the  Jornada  del  Muerto  of 
New  Mexico,  and  the  Mai  Pais  of  the  same  Territory  ; while  evi- 
dences of  the  destruction  of  former  inhabitants  by  sudden  volcanic 
eruptions,  more  fatal  and  extensive  than  that  of  Herculaneum 
and  Pompeii,  is  not  wanting.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
these  overwhelmed  cities  is  that  of  Abo,  in  the  Manzana  Moun- 
tains, about  a hundred  miles  south  of  Santa  Fe,.  in  Valencia 
county,  eighteen  miles  east  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa 
Fe  Railway,  and  perhaps  twenty  miles  from  the  Rio  Grande.  It 
was  discovered  by  Messrs.  H.  J.  Patterson  and  J.  H.  Mackley 
during  the  summer  of  1880.  Messrs.  Patterson  and  Mackley 
are  citizens  of  St.  Fouis,  who  had  been  exploring  New  Mexico 
for  mining  properties  for  some  months.  The  following  are 

the  principal  points  in  their  narrative: 


ABO,  THE  LAVA-BURNED  CITY. 


399 


Manzana  Mountains  mean  Apple  Mountains.  There  is  a 
noble  spring  of  water  called  the  Abo  spring,  which  is  shaded  by 
two  immense  cottonwood  trees  on  each  side.  There  are  no  in- 
habitants in  the  vicinity,  but  everywhere  there  are  evidences  of 
the  former  existence  of  a dense  population.  There  are  seen  the 
ruins  of  a large  church  or  temple,  covering  one  acre  of  ground. 
Mr.  Patterson  paced  it  off,  and  found  it  to  be  seventy  paces 
square.  The  walls  that  remain  are  sixty  feet  high.  The  roof  has 
long  since  caved  in,  and  the  interior  of  the  enclosure  is  filled  with 
debris.  The  thickness  of  the  wall  at  the  base  is  about  ten  feet. 
Mr.  Patterson  brought  away  a piece  of  one  of  the  timbers  that 
protruded  from  the  walls.  It  is  of  what  is  called  in  that  country 
the  pihon  tree,  a species  of  pine,  and  is  as  sound  as  when  taken 
from  the  tree.  There  are  on  one  side  of  the  piece  of  timber  some 
rude  figures,  one  of  the  All-Seeing  eye,  representing  probably 
the  sun.  Other  figures  are  deeply  indented  in  the  wood,  as  if 
made  by  anything  but  a sharp-edged  tool.  Mr.  Patterson  says 
that  he  found  stone  hammers,  but  nothing  in  the  shape  of  sharp- 
edged  or  steel  tools.  There  are  small  furrows  seen  in  the  wood, 
as  if  plowed  out  with  a stone  gouge.  The  building  evidently 
belonged  to  a style  of  architecture  anterior  to  the  adobe  and 
dried  brick  period.  Mr.  Patterson  inclines  to  the  opinion  that 
the  locality  was  the  site  of  one  of  the  seven  cities  of  Cibola,  men- 
tioned by  the  Spanish  chroniclers,  the  author  of  which  traversed 
the  country  after  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  among  which  were  the 
cities  of  Camelone,  Grand  Cavra,  Santa  Cruz,  Puerto  de  Abo,  the 
Abo  and  the  old  Pecos,  and  another  situated  a few  miles  west  of 
Abo  in  the  lava  beds.  Mr.  Patterson  asserts  that  the  old  city  in 
question  was  never  until  quite  recently  explored  by  white  men. 

Another  specimen  brought  by  these  gentlemen  is  a human 
skull,  evidently  that  of  a young  female,  as  shown  by  the  teeth, 
which  was  exhumed  about  half  a mile  from  the  church.  Skulls 
are  quite  plentiful  among  the  old  ruins  in  the  vicinity.  About 
five  miles  from  the  Abo  Springs  they  have  discovered  some 
ancient  silver  diggings.  They  were  brought  to  light  in  this 
wise : some  three  months  ago  a gentleman  named  Livingston, 
who  was  engaged  in  mining  operations  at  the  White  Oaks,  lost 


400 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


some  stock  and  went  in  search  of  it  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Manzana  Mountains.  While  here  a Mexican  handed  him  a 
piece  of  ore  for  examination,  which  he  stated  he  had  found  in 
the  hills  of  the  vicinity,  but  the  exact  locality  he  declined  to 
indicate.  Mr.  Livingston,  on  his  return  to  White  Oaks, 
showed  the  specimen  to  some  friends  in  camp,  among  whom 
were  Messrs.  Patterson  and  Davidson.  They  left  White  Oaks 
with  a complete  outfit  to  explore  the  Manzana  range,  and  were 
amply  rewarded  in  the  discoveries  made.  Right  below  the  old 
mines  they  found  twenty-two  old  smelters,  and  there  were  acres 
covered  with  the  slag,  some  specimens  of  which  Mr.  Patterson 
brings  with  him.  The  smelters  were  built  of  adobe,  or  sun-dried 
bricks,  and  were  elevated  some  twenty  or  thirty  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  ground. 

In  digging  down  they  found  the  remains  of  charcoal,  which 
was  used  for  fuel  by  the  old  smelters.  There  were  also  seen 
the  remains  of  an  aqueduct,  in  which  water  was  conveyed  from 
a spring  three-fourths  ol  a mile  distant  to  a dam  which  diverted 
the  water  into  the  smelting  works. 

About  five  acres  were  found  covered  with  slag,  which  Mr. 
Patterson  has  taken  up  for  a mill  site.  From  the  old  furnaces  a 
trail  was  found,  after  considerable  exploration,  leading  directly 
from  the  smelting  works  to  the  mine  in  the  mountains,  which 
here  rise  in  peaks  to  a height  of  10,000  feet.  The  ancient  trail 
pursues  a zigzag  course,  having  a length  of  some  five  miles, 
while,  in  an  air  line,  the  distance  is  not  much  exceeding  one 
mile.  Everything  was  transported  in  those  old  mining  days  on 
men’s  shoulders  to  and  from  the  mountains.  There  are  now 
trees  of  the  “ pinon  ” growing  on  the  trail  larger  than  a man’s 
body,  showing  the  antiquity  of  the  path.  Mr.  Patterson  said  he 
was  two  weeks  in  discovering  the  mines  after  finding  the  smelt- 
ing works.  The  trail  was  five  feet  wide  and  protected  by  rocks 
on  one  side  near  precipitous  places.  Limbs  were  seen  some 
thirty  feet  high  on  trees  that  had  been  cut  when  the  trees  were 
small  and  the  limbs  near  the  ground.  The  cutting  was  haggled, 
and  evidently  not  made  with  sharp  tools. 

The  mines  were  found  filled  with  old  timber.  The  explorers 


CONCEALED  MINES  AND  THE  SKELETON  CHAMBER.  401 

could  not  imagine  for  what  purpose  the  timber  was  used,  because 
the  walls  of  the  mine  are  quartzite,  and,  therefore,  it  was  unneces- 
sary to  protect  the  sides  from  tumbling  in  by  timber  supports. 
They,  therefore,  made  up  their  minds  that  the  mine  was  covered 
up  with  timber  to  conceal  it.  The  timber  had  rotted  and  fallen 
in  from  the  top,  choking  up  the  passage.  Thirteen  of  the  party 
worked  nearly  two  weeks  in  clearing  out  the  mine,  removing 
the  timber,  stagnant  water  and  old  leaves.  They  found  the  mine 
seventy  feet  deep,  with  several  horizontal  drifts  from  the  main 
shaft.  The  rock  is  found  to  be  very  rich,  as  appears  from  the 
specimens  brought  here. 

An  old  miner  named  Baxter  found,  in  digging  down,  a chamber 
about  ten  feet  square,  having  on  one  side  a fireplace,  across 
which  hung  a crane  having  a clay  hook,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
hook  was  a bone.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  fireplace  was 
found  the  skeleton  of  a man  in  a sitting  position,  who  was 
evidently  watching  the  bone  roasting  for  his  meal,  when  he  and 
his  habitation  were  overwhelmed  in  ruin  by  a sudden  discharge 
of  lava  from  the  mountain.  There  are  lava  beds  near  there 
extending  about  fifty  miles,  and  Mr.  Patterson  is  of  the  belief 
that  the  entire  population  in  some  former  period  must  have 
been  suddenly  extirpated  by  a great  volcanic  eruption.  He 
thinks  at  one  time  the  crater  of  these  mountains  was  sixty  miles 
long  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty  miles  across,  an  eruption  from 
which  would  destroy  every  living  thing  within  a hundred  miles. 
The  only  idea  we  can  form  of  its  destructive  influence  is  by  the 
ruins  seen  on  every  hand.  In  that  dry  atmosphere,  where  it  x 
rains  only  between  the  months  of  June  and  July,  wood  and 
animal  remains  are  long  preserved,  and  that  so  little  is  pre- 
served of  this  ancient  people  gives  us  a good  idea  of  the  ruin 
that  ensued. 

All  over  Western  New  Mexico  are  ruins  of  former  cities, 
inhabited  once  perhaps  by  the  same  races  who  reared  similar 
cities  in  Arizona  and  Southwest  Colorado,  and  closely  resembling 
them  in  structure  and  plan.  Some  of  these  are  massive  stone 
fortresses  of  great  extent,  and  would  now  be  impregnable  against 
everything  except  modern  artillery.  Among  these,  two  are 


402 


OUK  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


especially  worthy  of  notice  as  being  well  known  to  travellers. 
One  is  the  extensive  stone  fortifications  at  the  eastern  base  of 
the  Sierra  Pajarito,  on  the  southern  border  of  Lincoln  county; 
the  other  the  large  and  massive  ruins  in  Socorro  county,  east  of 
the  Mesa  Jumanes,  known  as  Gran  Quivira!'  These  ruins 
are  large  enough  for  a large  city,  and  Mr.  S.  W.  Cozzens,  who 
visited  them  in  1859,  says  that  the  city  must  have  had  not  less 
than  60,000  inhabitants.  The  ruins  extended  for  miles,  and 
showed  that  while  it  had  undoubtedly  been  a large  city  before 
the  advent  of  the  Spaniards  in  1 540,  it  had  been  captured  by 
them,  as  the  ruins  of  two  large  stone  churches,  over  which  the 
arms  of  Spain  were  carved,  fully  demonstrated.  There  were 
also  extensive  ruins  of  an  ancient  temple  like  the  Casas  Grandes 
on  the  Gila,  which  we  have  noticed  under  Arizona.  The  Acequia 
or  aqueduct,  which  had  brought  water  for  this  city,  was  traced 
fourteen  miles  into  the  mountains  to  a very  large  spring.  It  was 
built  of  stone  and  laid  in  cement,  and  was  an  admirable  piece  of 
engineering  work.  There  were  traces  also  of  silver  mines  which 
had  been  worked  for  a long  time,  but  with  very  imperfect  tools. 
The  city  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  “seven  great  cities  of  Cibola.” 
About  eighty  or  ninety  miles  south  of  La  Gran  Qiiivira,  on  the 
plain  east  of  the  Organ  Mountains,  in  Dona  Ana  county,  is  one 
of  those  rock  cities,  carved  by  the  winds  and  waters  into  the 
semblance  of  a city  with  its  massive  wall,  its  churches,  cathedrals, 
castles  and  towers,  its  broad  streets  and  its  numerous  dwellings, 
all  carved  out  of  a soft  white  sandstone,  and  so  perfect  an  imita- 
tion as  to  deceive  any  one  at  a little  distance.  Near  this  are 
salt  lakes,  the  salt  of  which  is  very  pure,  and  extensive  fields  of 
gypsum,  some  of  it  in  the  crystallized  form  of  selenite,  which 
was  used  instead  of  glass  for  lighting  the  best  dwellings  of  these 
ancient  cities.  In  the  ''Mai  Pais'"  or  Bad  country,  in  Socorro 
county,  east  of  the  Rio  Grande,  are  vast  deposits  of  fossils  as 
remarkable  as  those  of  Colorado,  Nebraska  or  Montana. 

In  1879  the  Smithsonian  Institution  sent  a small  party  of 
ethnologists  into  New^  Mexico  for  the  purpose  of  exploring  the 
ancient  Pueblo  ruins  of  the  valleys  of  the  Rio  San  Juan  and  the 
Rio  Cjrande  del  Norte,  and  of  making  extensive  collections  of 


THE  POTTERY  OF  THE  PUEBLOS. 


403 


antiquities  and  objects  of  aboriginal  interest  for  the  National 
Museum  at  Washington.  The  party,  while  in  the  vicinity,  visited 
the  ancient  town  of  Zuni,  where  they  have  succeeded  in  gather- 
ing together  upward  of  two  thousand  specimens  of  modern 
pottery,  stone  implements,  images,  costumes,  etc.  Scattered 
through  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  are  nineteen 
Pueblo  villages,  which  were  in  existence  long  before  the  dis- 
covery of  America ; and  the  inhabitants  to  this  day  preserve 
their  old  traditions  and  arts  comparatively  uninfluenced  by  the 
innovations  of  civilization. 

The  pottery  manufactured  in  the  town  of  Zuni  is  exceedingly 
interesting,  and  is  almost  identical  with  the  very  ancient  ware 
which  is  found  among  the  stone  ruins  which  abound  throughout 
that  section.  Attention  has  been  called  to  this  ware  by  Lieu- 
tenant A.  W.  Whipple,  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Pacific  Railroad 
Reports,  and  more  recently  by  Professor  F.  V.  Hayden,  in  one 
of  his  reports  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  of  the 
Territories  (1876).  In  the  latter  are  figured  several  fine  water 
vessels  in  the  forms  of  owls,  hawks,  ducks  and  domesticated 
fowls.  The  collection  made  by  the  Smithsonian  party  includes 
many  animal  forms  and  hundreds  of  specimens  of  almost  every 
conceivable  shape,  scarcely  any  two  of  them  being  similar.  It 
is,  without  exception,  the  finest  and  most  complete  collection  of 
modern  Pueblo  ware  in  existence.  The  methods  of  manufactur- 
ing this  pottery  are  exceedingly  interesting,  and  a study  of  them 
throws  much  light  on  the  ancient  Pueblo  art,  which  produced  the 
most  superior  aboriginal  ware  yet  discovered  within  the  limits 
of  the  United  States.  The  clay  is  procured  from  the  neighbor- 
ing mesas,  and  the  vessels  are  moulded  entirely  by  hand. 
When  an  unusually  fine  piece  is  being  made,  the  clay  is  wet  and 
smoothed  by  the  lips  of  the  potter,  who  then  sets  the  vessel  aside 
to  dry.  The  paint  is  put  on  by  a brush,  and  then  burned  in  an 
oven  surrounded  with  dry  manure. 

In  the  Pueblo  of  Laguna  pottery  is  made  in  a similar  manner. 
A private  collection,  just  received  in  Philadelphia  from  there, 
contains  a number  of  vessels  in  imitation  of  ducks,  setting  hens, 
etc.  Such  objects,  while  ornamental,  are  designed  for  use  also. 


404 


OUR  IVES  TERN  EMPIRE. 


and  are  employed  in  carrying  water  on  journeys.  A common 
ornament  on  this  ware  is  a painted  representation  of  the  elk  or 
deer,  in  which  a passage  invariably  extends  from  the  mouth  to 
the  heart,  which  latter  is  of  triangular  form.  The  tenahas,  or 
earthen  basins,  are  used  as  receptacles  for  meal,  corn,  water,  or 
other  substances  which  constitute  the  food  of  the  natives.  One 
very  old  vessel  is  covered  with  representations  of  snakes,  a rare 
figure  in  the  ornamentation  of  Pueblo  ware,  since  the  priests  or 
medicine  men  no  longer  permit  the  people  to  employ  the  sun  or 
serpent  symbols,  but  monopolize  them  in  their  incantations  and 
stately  ceremonies.  Tenahas  are  made  of  all  sizes,  from  an 
inch  in  diameter  to  those  that  will  hold  from  twenty  to  thirty 
gallons.  Each  large  vessel  has  a concave  Attorn,  like  a cham- 
pagne-bottle, for  steadying  k on  the  head  in  carrying  water  from 
the  well. 

The  clay  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  Laguna  pottery  is  of 
a dark  slate  color  and  exceedingly  compact,  oftentimes  approach- 
ing- soft  rock  in  texture.  This  is  taken  from  seams  or  veins  in 
the  mesa  walls.  'The  Indians  soak  this  clay  in  water  for  two  or 
three  days,  when  it  becomes  perfectly  plastic.  It  is  then  kneaded 
with  the  feet  of  the  workmen  on  a large  flat  stone,  and  all  the 
hard  lumps  are  taken  out  carefully.  After  the  vessels  are 
moulded  into  form  they  are  left  to  dry,  and  then  covered  with  a 
ground  work  of  white  paint.  Over  this  are  painted  fanciful 
devices  in  red,  orange  and  black.  The  lustre  of  the  ware  is  im- 
parted by  polishing  the  paint,  before  baking,  with  an  exceedingly 
smooth  stone  like  an  ordinary  seashore  pebble.  The  brown  or 
black  pigment  is  made  from  a black  stone  somewhat  resembling 
hematite.  This  is  ground  fine,  mixed  with  water,  and  violently 
agitated  for  some  time.  It  is  then  poured  from  one  vessel  to 
another  to  remove  all  grit,  and  is  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 
vessel  to  be  ornamented,  as  common  paint,  with  a stick.  This 
paint  alone  would  rub  off,  but  to  prevent  this  it  is  mixed  with  the 
residue  of  two  plants  or  weeds  boiled  together  for  a long  time 
until  it  becomes  of  the  required  consistency,  after  which  it  is  al- 
lowed to  cool ; it  then  becomes  perfectly  hard.  The  clay 
employed  for  the  red  color  is  of  a yellowish  tint,  but  on  being 


MANUFACTURES  OF  NEW  MEXICO.  40 5 

baked  changes  to  a brilliant  red.  The  process  of  burning  or 
baking  consists  in  first  placing  the  vessels  on  stones,  around  which 
is  packed  a quantity  of  dry  barnyard  manure,  which  is  considered 
the  best  fuel.  The  vessel  is  covered  completely  with  this  sub- 
stance, so  as  to  exclude  the  air,  and  a very  hot  fire  of  two  or 
three  hours’  duration  is  produced.  During  the  process  of  burn- 
ing the  vessels  are  closely  watched,  and  no  portion  of  them  is 
permitted  to  become  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 

The  pottery  of  Laguna,  and  in  fact  of  most  of  the  other  Pueblo 
villages,  is  almost  entirely  made  by  the  women,  who  expend 
much  of  their  leisure  time  in  moulding  and  decorating  the  ware. 
The  particular  interest  which  attaches  to  the  Pueblo  pottery  is  in 
the  fact  that  these  people  of  New  Mexico  and  the  Moquis  of 
Arizona  are  the  only  aboriginal  tribes  in  the  United  States  that 
still  practise  their  old  arts,  unchanged  by  the  influences  of  civili- 
zation. 

Manufactures. — Very  little  is  done  in  the  way  of  manufactures, 
though  the  Pueblo  Indians  and  the  Mexicans  are  both  ingenious ; 
and  with  very  imperfect  and  rude  tools  will  produce  remarkable 
results.  The  jewelry  produced  from  native  gold  and  silver  is  of 
remarkably  artistic  designs,  as  is  the  native  pottery.  The  serapes 
and  blankets  made  from  the  coarse  wool  of  the  Mexican  sheep 
or  the  hair  of  the  goat  are  of  excellent  quality,  and  so  dense  that 
water  cannot  percolate  through  them.  The  saddles,  stirrups  and 
horse  fixtures  generally  are  of  excellent  quality,  and  the  better 
sorts  have  a good  deal  of  bullion,  and  a rude,  barbaric  splendor 
about  them.  Beyond  these  articles  there  is  very  little  which  can 
be  called  manufactures.  The  rude  bateas,  or  wooden  bowls, 
which  were  their  substitute  for  the  pan  and  the  rocker  of  the 
placer  miner,  and  the  arastras,  great  boulders,  bound  to  the  arms 
of  the  central  capstan,  with  which  they  ground  their  quartz  rock 
to  powder,  constituted  their  sole  mining  apparatus  ; they  had 
even  forgotten  how  to  construct  the  rude  adobe  smelters,  which 
the  Indians  used  three  centuries  ago.  But  with  railroads  and 
railroad  towns  all  over  the  Territory,  there  will  come  in  manu- 
factures, and  builders,  architects,  machinists  and  engineers  will  be 
found  in  great  numbers  through  the  Territory. 


4o6 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


Historical  Data. — New  Mexico  was  first  heard  of  in  Europe 
in  1530  as  the  Kingdom  of  Cibola,  from  whence  the  Mexican 
rulers  obtained  their  gold  and  precious  gems.  It  was  reached 
in  1540  by  Coronado,  but  did  not  come  fully  under  Spanish 
domination  until  near  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
foreigners  were  well  received  at  first,  but  they  soon  became 
obnoxious  to  the  people.  The  religious  and  civil  authorities 
were  alike  greedy  for  gold,  and  the  gold  mines  were  made  to 
yield  immense  sums  to  the  church  and  the  rulers,  by  the  enslav- 
ing of  the  natives,  and  the  practice  of  the  most  atrocious  cruelties 
upon  them.  The  cathedral  of  Santa  Fe  alone  received  from  one 
mine  $10,000,000.  At  last,  exasperated  beyond  endurance,  the 
long-suffering  natives  rose  in  rebellion  in  1 680  and  expelled  the 
Spaniards,  but  only  succeeded  in  keeping  them  out  for  thirteen 
years.  During  this  time  every  mine  in  the  country  was  filled 
up.  Peace  was  made  on  condition  that  there  should  be  no  more 
slavery  and  no  more  mining.  From  that  time  until  1846,  when 
the  American  army  took  possession  of  the  Territory,  the  history 
of  New  Mexico  is  almost  a blank;  things  went  on  the  same  from 
generation  to  generation.  The  governors  of  New  Mexico  were 
practically  independent  by  their  isolation  ; and  the  revolution 
which  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke  from  Mexico  made  very  little 
difference  with  this  remote  State.  In  1846  General  Kearney  cap- 
tured Santa  Fe,  and  overran  the  entire  Territory,  which  was 
ceded  to  the  United  States  two  years  later  under  the  treaty  of 
Guadalupe-Hidalgo.  The  land  south  of  the  Gila  was  obtained 
in  1853  by  purchase  from  Mexico,  and  in  1854  New  Mexico  con- 
tained, besides  the  region  within  its  present  limits,  the  whole  of 
Arizona  and  portions  of  Nevada  and  Colorado.  So  much  of  the 
country  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  as  lies  between  the  thirty- 
seventh  and  thirty-eighth  parallels  was  annexed  to  Colorado  in 
February,  1861,  and,  two  years  later,  Arizona  was  set  off.  Sev- 
eral attempts  have  been  made  to  secure  the  admission  of  New 
Mexico  to  the  Federal  Union,  but  so  far  without  success.  A bill 
for  that  purpose  was  presented  to  the  Forty-third  Congress  in 
March,  1875,  but  failed  to  become  a law.  Until  it  can  come  in 


OREGON. 


407 

as  a State  having  a republican  form  of  government  and  not  un- 
der the  control  of  a religious  hierarchy  and  an  established  church, 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  all  future  applications  will  prove  equally 
unsuccessful.  But  the  vast  tide  of  immigration  now  flowing  into 
the  Territory,  and  which  is  likely  to  be  still  larger,  will  soon 
effect  such  changes  that  its  reception  into  the  Union  will  be  both 
proper  and  desirable. 

Conclusion. — There  is  no  use  in  counseling  immigrants  to 
avoid  a region  so  rich  in  mineral  wealth,  or’so  well  adapted  to 
pastoral  pursuits,  as  New  Mexico  ; but  there  is  a sufficiency  of 
these  advantages  to  last  for  several  years  to  come ; and  the  im- 
migrant who  delays  until  the  Indian  troubles  are  fully  settled, 
and  the  country,  and  its  railways  and  highways,  its  government, 
schools  and  religious  advantages  are  more  fully  developed,  will 
je  wiser  than  those  who,  in  their  haste  to  be  rich,  rush  in  now, 
and  find,  as  they  will,  that  wealth  is  only  to  be  purchased  by 
great  trials,  privations  and  sacrifices. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

OREGON. 


Oregon  is  one  of  the  States  of  “The  Picturesque  West,’’  situ- 
ated on  the  Pacific  slope,  and,  except  Washington,  is  the  most 
northwesterly  of  the  States  and  Territories  comprised  within 
the  limits  assigned  to  that“  Empire.”  It  is  between  the  parallels 
of  42°  and  46°  18’ north  latitude,  and  between  the  meridians  of 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


408 

116°  33'  and  124°  25'  west  longitude  from  Greenwich.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Washington  Territory,  the  Columbia 
river  forming  the  boundary  to  the  point  where  that  river  crosses 
tlie  parallel  of  46°  and  the  boundary  running  thence  eastward, 
along  that  parallel,  to  the  Snake  river ; on  the  east  it  is  bounded 
by  Idaho  Territory,  the  Snake  river  forming  the  boundary  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Owyhee,  and  thence  a line  drawn  due  south  along 
the  meridian  of  116°  50'  west  longitude  to  the  Nevada  line;  on 
the  south  it  is  bounded  by  Nevada  and  California,  the  parallel 
of  42^^  forming  the  boundary  line ; on  the  west  its  shores  are 
washed  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Its  greatest  width  from  east  to 
west  is  360  miles,  and  from  north  to  south  275  miles;  while  its 
coast  line  is  about  300  miles.  Its  area  is  95,274  square  miles,  or 
60,975,360  acres.  It  is  a little  larger  than  the  two  States  of  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania. 

Face  of  the  Country. — The  principal  mountains  of  Oregon, 
those  having  the  highest  summits,  are  the  Cascade  Mountains,  a 
continuation  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California,  which  stretch 
across  the  State  from  north  to  south,  at  an  average  distance  of 
about  no  miles  from  the  coast  of  the  Pacific.  Numerous  barren 
snow-capped  peaks  of  volcanic  origin  rise  from  them  to  great 
heights  within  the  limits  of  Oregon,  of  which  the  most  elevated 
are  Mount  Hood  (11,025  feet).  Mounts  Jefferson,  Thielsen,  Scott, 
Pitt  and  the  Three  Sisters.  The  Cascade  Range  divides  Oregon 
into  two  distinct  sections,  known  as  Eastern  and  Western  Ore- 
gon. Of  these  the  former  contains  by  far  the  most  territory,  but 
the  latter  is  far  more  advanced  in  settlement ; and  within  its 
natural  boundaries,  that  is,  between  the  Cascade  Mountains  and 
the  Pacific  coast,  more  than  seven-tenths  of  the  present  population 
of  the  State  are  living. 

Another  chain  of  mountains,  the  so-called  Coast  Range,  ex' 
tends  also  north  and  south,  over  Western  Oregon,  at  a distance 
varying  from  forty  to  seventy  miles  from  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
and  proportionately  nearer  to  the  Pacific  coast.  Its  elevation  is, 
however,  much  lower  than  that  of  the  latter,  its  highest  points 
being  only  a few  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Eastern  Oregon  is  subdivided,  so  to  speak,  into  Middle  Oregon 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  OREGON 


409 

and  Eastern  Oregon  proper,  by  the  Blue  Mountains ; a range 
with  a general  northeast  and  southwest  direction,  at  a distance 
of  about  150  miles  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains.  A chain 
known  as  the  “Western  Spur”  of  the  Blue  Mountains  extends 
at  right  angles  with  the  main  chain  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  in  a 
direction  from  northwest  to  southeast,  from  the  mouth  of  Trout 
creek,  on  the  Des  Chutes  river,  to  the  Malheur  river,  and  a par- 
allel but  shorter  chain  extends  from  Camp  Curry  to  Crooked 
lake. 

The  Cascade  Mountains,  in  conjunction  with  the  Coast  Range 
and  the  numerous  chains  of  hills  flanking  and  skirting  and  run- 
ning out  from  them,  divide  the  surface  of  Western  Oregon  into 
numerous  valleys  of  varying  extent,  traversed  by  more  or  less 
important  water-courses. 

The  largest  rivers  of  Western  Oregon  are  the  Columbia,  which 
separates  it  on  the  north  from  Washington  Territory;  the  Wil- 
lamette, the  largest  tributary  of  the  Columbia  ; Young,  and  Lewis 
and  Clarke  rivers,  also  flowing  into  the  Columbia ; the  Umpqua 
and  Rogue,  Tillamook,  Yaquina,  Alseya,  Siuslaw  and  Coquille, 
emptying  into  the  Pacific;  and  the  Tualatin,  Clackamas,  Yamhill, 
Santiam,  Luckiamute,  Mary  and  Long  Tom  rivers,  all  tributaries 
of  the  Willamette,  which  itself  is  formed  by  three  separate 
streams,  known  as  McKenzie’s,  Middle  and  Coast  forks. 

The  principal  water-courses  of  Middle  Oregon  are  the  Des 
Chutes,  John  Day’s  and  Umatilla  rivers,  and  their  numerous  trib- 
utaries, the  waters  of  which  unite  with  the  Columbia. 

The  principal  river  of  Eastern  Oregon  proper  is  the  Snake 
river,  which  separates  Oregon  from  Idaho,  and  its  main  tribu- 
taries, the  Grande  Ronde,  Powder,  Burnt,  Malheur  and  Owyhee 
rivers. 

There  are  numerous  lakes  in  Southeastern  Oregon,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  are  the  Klamath,  Goose,  Malheur  and  Warner’s 
lakes.  Lake  Harney,  Silver,  Summer,  Albert,  Christmas  and 
Guano  lakes. 

Among  the  distinctive  features  of  Oregon  are  the  numerous 
valleys  formed,  as  already  stated,  by  the  several  mountain  chains 
and  the  minor  ranges  issuing  from  them. 


410 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


The  principal  valleys  of  Western  Oregon  are  those  of  the  Wil- 
lamette, Umpqua  and  Rogue  rivers,  each  of  which  deserves  par- 
ticular mention. 

The  Willamette  valley  is  by  far  the  largest,  and  in  every  re- 
spect the  most  attractive.  It  has  been  appropriately  named  “the 
garden  of  the  Northwest.”  None  of  the  famous  valleys  of  the 
Old  or  New  World,  not  even  that  of  the  Nile,  or  the  Sacramento, 
San  Joaquin  or  Santa  Clara  valleys  of  California,  surpass  it  in 
fertility  or  salubrity.  In  beauty  of  scenery  its  equal  is  not  to 
be  found  anywhere.  The  Hon.  Schuyler  Colfax,  late  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  who  visited  it  some  years  since,  enthu- 
siastically pronounced  it  “as  charming  a landscape  as  ever 
painter’s  hand  placed  upon  canvas.”  It  is  about  150  miles  in 
length,  from  thirty  to  sixty  miles  in  width,  and  contains  within  its 
natural  boundaries — viz. : the  Columbia  river  on  the  north,  the 
Cascade  Mountains  on  the  east,  the  Coast  Range  on  the  west, 
and  the  Callapoia  Mountains  on  the  south — about  5,000,000  acres 
of  unusual  productiveness,  of  which  only  a part  is  as  yet  under 
cultivation.  It  is  well  watered  throughout  by  the  Willamette 
river  and  its  tributaries.  This  valley  was  the  first  portion  of 
Oregon  to  be  settled,  and  will  always  be  the  Eden  of  the  Pacific. 
A few  years  ago  it  contained  two-thirds  of  the  population  of  Or- 
egon, but  within  the  past  decade  other  portions  of  the  State  have 
been  rapidly  settling  up,  and  its  population,  though  large  and 
permanent,  does  not  bear  as  large  a proportion  to  the  whole  as 
formerly. 

The  Umpqua  valley  lies  to  the  south  of  the  Callapoia  Moun- 
tains, and  is  watered  by  the  Umpqua  river  and  its  tributaries. 
Its  eastern  boundary  is  formed  by  the  Cascade  Mountains,  its 
western  by  the  Coast  Range,  and  its  southern  by  the  Grave 
Creek  Range.  It  contains  about  2,500,000  acres. 

To  the  south  of  the  chain  of  mountains  last  named  lies  the 
Valley  of  Rogue  River,  which  has  the  same  boundaries  to  the 
east  and  west  as  the  two  other  valleys  described,  and  is  bounded 
on  the  south  by  the  Siskiyou  Mountain,  which  separates  it  from 
California.  Its  area  is  about  2,400,000  acres.  There  are  sev- 
eral other  smaller  but  fertile  valleys,  the  bottom  lands  of  the 
numerous  small  streams  which  fall  into  the  Pacific. 


MR.  TOLMAN  ON  NORTHEASTERN  OREGON.  411 

Middle  Oregon  has  no  great  agricultural  valleys,  the  region 
between  the  Cascade  Range  and  the  western  spur  of  the  Blue 
Mountains  being  almost  wholly  composed  of  high  rolling  pla- 
teaux, and  the  Des  Chutes  river,  as  its  name  implies,  flows 
through  deep  and  narrow  canons,  with  numerous  rapids  and 
cataracts.  At  the  sources  of  the  Des  Chutes  there  is  an  exten- 
sive sage  desert,  but  the  sage  after  being  touched  with  the  frost 
is  very  much  liked  by  cattle,  and  forms  an  excellent  forage  for 
them,  so  that  the  “ Sage  Desert  ” proves  to  be  excellent  grazing 
ground.  This  whole  region  of  the  plains  has  been  found  to  be 
admirably  adapted  to  grazing,  and  portions  of  it  are  among  the 
most  productive  wheat  farms  in  the  State. 

Eastern  Oregon  abounds  in  fertile  valleys,  which  yield  immense 
crops.  The  Commercial  Reporter  gives  a list  of  twenty-two 
(not  one-half  of  those  which  are  known  there),  which  have  an 
area  of  5,891,200  acres,  every  foot  of  which  is  very  fertile.  These 
valleys  will  soon  have  good  access  to  markets  over  narrow-gauge 
roads,  now  in  course  of  construction  by  the  Oregon  Railway  and 
Navigation  Company  to  La  Grande,  Baker  City  and  Sparta, 
which  will  connect  them  with  Portland,  Oregon,  by  rail  or 
steamer,  and  very  soon  also  by  the  way  of  the  Northern  Pacific 
with  the  East. 

The  Surveyor-General  of  Oregon,  Hon.  James  C.  Tolman, 
speaks  as  follows  of  those  sections  of  the  State  which  have 
hitherto  been  least  known,  in  his  report  to  the  Land  Office,  Au- 
gust 15,  1879: 

“A.  small  portion  of  Southwestern  Oregon  is  quite  mountain- 
ous, and  is  mostly  adapted  to  mining  and  grazing.  The  area  of 
this  class,  however,  is  comparatively  small,  and  generally  contains 
sufficient  arable  tracts  to  furnish  supplies  of  garden  products  for 
local  use. 

“ That  portion  of  the  district  east  of  the  Cascade  Range  and 
north  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  generally  known  as  Northeastern 
Oregon,  consists  principally  of  high,  rolling  table-lands,  with 
occasional  river  and  creek  bottoms,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the 
eastern  and  northern  slopes  of  the  mountain  ranges  mentioned,  is 
scarce  of  timber.  It  comprises  an  area  of  generally  arable  land, 


412 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


of  about  forty  by  eighty  miles  in  extent,  is  rapidly  settling  up  in 
the  more  eligible  locations,  and  is  certain,  in  the  near  future,  to 
become  a vast  wheat-growing  region.  Where,  but  a few  years 
ago,  only  the  Indian  or  the  trapper  found  inducement  to  remain, 
is  now  the  scene  of  busy  activity  and  great  attraction.  It  is  in 
this  region  that  timber  is  now  in  most  demand,  and  dependence 
is  upon  the  adjacent  mountains.  There  they  can  cut  and  saw 
timber  for  rails  and  lumber  and  draw  or  raft  it  to  the  farms 
below,  and  it  is  here  that  timber  depredations  have  been  most 
frequent.  The  land  has  mostly  remained  unsurveyed  where  the 
timber  grows,  and  the  citizens  could  not  purchase  it,  or  procure 
the  use  of  it,  even  by  the  payment  of  ‘ stumpage  ; ’ but  they  felt 

that  they  must  have  timber The  central  portion  of 

Eastern  Oregon  is  mainly  mountainous,  with  occasional  valleys 
and  water-courses  adapted  to  settlement  and  utility.  This  tract 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Blue  Mountains,  on  the  west  by 
the  Cascade  Range  (the  latter  extending  entirely  through  the 
State  from  north  to  south),  on  the  east  by  Snake  river,  and  on 
the  south  by  the  spurs  and  buttes  of  the  Cascade  and  other 
ranges  of  mountains,  embracing  a tract  of  country  near  150 
miles  square.  Although  mainly  devoted  to  mining  at  this  time 
there  are  yet  large  tracts  of  this  district  that  are  good  arable 
land,  and  which  will,  in  the  course  of  time,  be  surveyed  and  taken 
up  by  settlers.  At  this  time  it  is  so  far  removed  from  market 
that  it  affords  little  attraction  to  other  than  stock-raisers  and 
miners,  excepting  a narrow  strip  along  the  one  overland 
thoroughfare. 

“Southeastern  Oregon  comprises  about  one-fourth  the  entire 
area  of  the  State,  and  is  mainly  adapted  for  grazing.  It  is  here 
that  are  annually  reared  and  fattened  the  beeves  which  furnish 
the  markets  of  California,  Utah,  Nevada  and  most  of  Southern 
Oregon.  There  are  numerous  small  valleys,  however,  which  are 
of  most  excellent  agricultural  quality,  and  will  be  more  than  suffi- 
cient for  all  time  to  furnish  the  local  demand  for  produce.  This 
portion  of  the  country  is  composed  principally  of  vast  grassy 
plains,  interspersed  with  low  wooded  hills,  and  thickly  set  with 
beautiful  lakes.  Scattered  over  it  are  some  marshes  and  swamps. 


SOIL  AND  VEGETATION— JV£S TEL N OREGON. 


413 

many  of  which  are  susceptible  of  easy  reclamation,  and  when 
once  redeemed  will  add  that  much  to  the  already  abundant 
meadow  land.  There  are  no  extensive  belts  of  arid  land  in  Or- 
egon, only  at  long  intervals  small  tracts  of  desert,  and  these  gen- 
erally reclaimable.  Such  tracts  as  could  be  thought  worthy  of 
the  name  exist  only  in  the  imagination  of  those  really  unac* 
quainted  with  the  country.” 

Soil  and  Vegetation. — In  Western  Oregon,  both  mountain  and 
valley  have  good  and  productive  soils,  the  valleys  being  very 
rich,  the  mountain  slopes  hardly  less  so;  while  the  mountains  are 
rich  enough  to  be  covered  with  gigantic  growths  of  timber  to 
their  summits,  or  where  this  has  been  burned,  with  a dense 
undergrowth,  indicating  its  productiveness.  The  general  char- 
acter of  the  soil  in  the  valleys  is  a dark  loam  and  vegetable 
mould  with  a clay  subsoil.  The  soil  of  the  bottom  lands,  con- 
tiguous to  the  water-courses,  is  generally  composed  of  rich 
alluvial  deposits  of  decomposed  earth  and  vegetable  mould. 
The  so-called  beaver-dam  lands  have  deep  accumulations  of 
humus  or  earthy  deposits,  decayed  vegetable  matter  and  decom- 
posed trees,  the  work  of  beavers  during  centuries,  and  are  of 
extraordinary  fertility,  but  are  of  limited  extent.  Most  of  the 
lands  in  the  larger  valleys  have  a rich,  very  deep  soil.  This  is 
especially  true  of  the  level  and  rolling  prairies  between  the  river 
bottoms  and  foot-hills.  Besides  the  large  valleys  of  the  Willa- 
mette, Umpqua  and  Rogue  rivers,  and  their  tributaries,  those  of 
the  Young,  Lewis  and  Clarke,  Nehalem  and  Coquille  rivers,  and 
of  Skippanon  creek,  the  basins  of  Tillamook  and  Yaquina  bay, 
and  the  so-called  Clatsop  plain,  offer  fine  fields  for  agricultural 
pursuits  in  Western  Oregon.  The  action  of  the  clay  subsoil  in 
retaining  moisture  accounts  for  the  exceeding  productiveness  of 
the  soil.  The  land,  too,  retains  its  productive  capacity  for 
unusually  long  periods  of  time,  and  seems,  indeed,  all  but  inex- 
haustible. Even  after  having  produced  crops  of  wheat,  oats  and 
barley,  for  from  fifteen  to  thirty  years,  without  any  manure,  and 
with  indifferent  ploughing,  it  remains  as  fertile  as  ever. 

The  soil  of  the  foot-hills  and  tillable  mountain  surfaces  con- 
sists of  red,  brown,  or  black  loam  ; the  black  predominating  near 


4^4 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


the  mountain  ranges.  The  elevated  lands  not  only  afford  the 
best  natural  pasturage,  but  produce  good  crops  of  hay,  cereals, 
vegetables  and  fruit. 

In  Middle  Oregon  soil  for  agricultural  purposes  is  not  so  gen- 
erally good  on  the  elevated  plateaux  as  west  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains ; the  best  openings  are  in  the  valleys  along  water- 
courses. In  some  parts  of  these  districts,  artificial  irrigation  has 
to  be  employed  to  make  the  soil  productive,  and  with  this 
stimulus,  they  yield  enormous  crops. 

In  Eastern  Oregon,  the  river  valleys  are  rich,  and  most  of  the 
land,  even  in  the  uplands,  is  a strong  alluvium,  producing  from 
thirty  to  sixty  bushels  of  wheat,  a like  proportion  of  other  grains, 
and  immense  root  crops.  These  lands  are  new,  and  their  pro- 
ductiveness has  not  been  known  until  within  the  past  five  years. 
The  Cascade  Mountains,  the  Coast  Range,  and  the  Callapoia 
Mountains,  as  well  as  a large  part  of  the  valleys  of  Western 
Oregon,  are  covered  with  mighty  forests,  affording  an  inex- 
haustible supply  of  hard  and  soft  timber.  In  the  valleys  different 
kinds  of  ash,  oak,  maple,  balm  and  alder,  as  well  as  fir,  cedar, 
spruce,  pine  and  yew,  grow  in  great  abundance.  In  the  foot- 
hills scattering  oaks  and  firs,  with  a thick  second  growth  in  many 
places,  are  found.  The  mountains  are  mostly  covered  with  thick 
growths  of  tall  fir,  pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  cedar,  larch  and  laurel, 
without  much  undergrowth.  Two  kinds  of  cedar,  two  of  fir,  and 
three  of  pine,  are  indigenous  to  Oregon.  Trees  attain  an  unusu- 
ally fine  development,  both  as  regards  height  and  symmetrical 
form.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  State  the  red  fir  abounds,  and 
often  measures  two  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in 
height,  with  trunks  nine  feet  in  diameter,  clear  of  branches  up 
for  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  Out  of  such 
trees  eighteen  rail-cuts  have  been  made,  and  five  thousand  to  ten 
thousand  feet  of  lumber.  Elder  stalks  from  eighteen  to  thirty 
inches  in  circumference,  hazel  bushes  from  one  to  five  inches  in 
diameter,  are  of  common  occurrence.  Lumber  is  cut  from  elder 
saw-logs  measuring  twenty  to  thirty  inches  in  diameter.  In  the 
forests  south  of  the  Umpqua  the  yellow  pine  is  found,  as  also  an 
abundance  of  sugar  pine,  the  wood  of  which  is  in  great  demand. 


OREGON  PASTURE-LANDS.  4l5 

For  commercial  and  industrial  purposes,  the  red  cedar,  red  fir, 
hemlock,  sugar  pine,  maple  and  ash,  are  the  most  valuable.  The 
natural  grasses  of  Western  Oregon  are  of  fine  quality  and  retain 
their  nutritious  and  fattening  character  till  late  in  the  autumn. 
The  rains  which  fall  regularly  in  May  and  June  keep  the  pasture 
in  a succulent  condition  through  the  later  summer  and  autumn. 
One  acre  of  this  natural  pasture  will  feed  a sheep  through  the 
year,  and  two  acres  an  ox.  But  the  best  grazing  lands  are  found 
in  Middle  and  Eastern  and  especially  Southeastern  Oregon. 
There  are  a great  variety  of  native  grasses  of  the  most  nutritious 
character  in  this  vast  pasture-ground,  which  comprises  about 
thirty-three  million  acres.  The  cattle  and  sheep  pastured  on 
these  grasses  thrive  better  than  those  fed  on  grain  in  the  east. 
The  only  difficulty  is  that  they  become  too  fat.  These  lands, 
where  they  are  moderately  accessible  to  a market,  are  being 
taken  up  extensively  for  dairy  farms,  and  the  golden  Oregon 
butter  has  already  a high  reputation  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Water  Supply. — Western  Oregon,  with  its  immense  annual 
rainfall,  its  streams  fed  from  the  snow  on  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains, and  the  moist  breezes  swept  in  from  the  Pacific,  is  in  no 
want  of  water.  Lakes,  ponds,  and  fine  springs  abound.  In 
Middle  Oregon,  on  the  elevated  plains,  there  is  sometimes  a 
scarcity,  and  occasionally  irrigation  is  necessary,  but  the  facilities 
for  this  are  so  ample,  the  cost  of  irrigation  is  so  moderate,  and 
the  results  produced  by  it  so  vast  and  profitable,  that  irrigation 
is  not  a drawback  to  the  cultivation  of  these  lands.  In  Eastern 
Oregon  the  rainfall,  though  less  copious  than  in  the  western 
portion  of  the  State,  is  sufficiently  so  for  all  practical  purposes, 
and 'the  beautiful  valleys  there  do  not  suffer  from  drought. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Western  Oregon  is  mild  and  equable, 
differing  in  this  from  that  of  the  Eastern  States,  that  it  is  neither 
too  hot  in  summer  nor  too  cold  in  winter.  Owing  to  the 
proximity  of  the  Pacific  and  the  Gulf  stream  of  that  ocean,  snow 
or  frost  never  prevails  to  any  considerable  degree.  The  average 
temperature  explains  this  fact.  The  average  for  spring  is  52°; 
for  summer,  67°;  for  autumn,  53°  ; and  for  winter,  39°  Eahren- 
heit,  showing  a mean  deviation  of  only  28°  during  the  year.  The 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


416 

average  yearly  rainfall  is  forty-four  inches,  about  the  same  as  at 
Davenport  (la.),  Memphis  and  Philadelphia.  Thunder-storms 
are  almost  unknown  in  Western  Oregon,  and  the  disastrous 
hurricanes  and  whirlwinds  of  the  Atlantic  States  entirely  so. 

Eastern  Oregon  has  a dryer  climate,  a considerably  smaller 
rainfall,  a somewhat  greater  heat  in  summer  and  a lower  tem- 
perature in  winter,  assimilating  very  closely  in  these  respects  to 
the  Red  River  valley  of  Minnesota  and  Dakota,  though  in  gen- 
eral with  less  depth  of  snow  in  winter.  But  this  climate  is 
eminently  healthful,  and  the  smaller  rainfall  does  not  interfere 
with  the  production  of  the  largest  and  finest  crops  of  wheat 
grown  anywhere. 

Middle  Oregon  has  a more  equable  climate  and  a moderate 
rainfall,  but  on  its  elevated  plateaux  both  the  cold  and  the  heat 
are  felt  all  the  more  keenly,  that  there  is  no  kindly  forest  to 
shelter  and  protect  the  traveller  from  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun,  or 
the  biting  cold  of  the  winter  winds. 

Rheumatic  and  pulmonary  diseases  are  excessively  rare  in  all 
parts  of  Oregon.  There  are  in  some  of  the  lowlands  near  rivers 
and  lakes  in  Southern  Oregon  occasional  sporadic  cases  of  a mild 
intermittent  fever,  but  they  are  never  severe  enough  to  be  serious, 
and  they  yield  rapidly  to  treatment.  Some  of  the  small  towns 
on  the  Pacific,  like  Astoria,  Port  Orford  and  Umpqua  City,  have  a 
much  greater  rainfall  than  the  towns  of  the  Willamette  valley. 
In  these  towns,  in  the  past,  the  annual  rainfall  has  reached  sixty- 
four,  sixty-six,  or  sixty-seven  inches,  but  the  Coast  Range  robs 
the  weeping  clouds  of  the  skies  of  the  coast  of  a part  of  their 
superabundant  moisture. 

According  to  the  census  of  1870,  the  death-rate  in  Oregon  is 
lower  than  in  any  other  State  or  Territory  in  the  Union,  except- 
ing Idaho,  being  only  .69  per  cent,  of  the  population  : while  in 
California  it  is  1.16;  in  Vermont,  1.07;  Massachusetts,  1.77; 
Indiana,  1.05;  Illinois,  1.33;  Kansas,  1.25;  and  Missouri,  1.63. 

The  equable  temperature,  the  absence  of  high,  cold  winds  and 
sudden  atmospheric  changes,  render  people  less  subject  to 
bronchial,  rheumatic  and  inflammatory  complaints  than  in  other 
parts  of  the  country,  where  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are 


CLIMATES  OF  OREGON.  417 

greater,  and  the  changes  of  temperature  more  sudden  and 
violent. 

We  give  on  page  1102  the  meteorology  of  Portland,  Oregon, 
representing  the  northwest  region  of  the  State  ; of  Roseburg,  rep- 
resenting the  southwest,  and  of  Umatilla,  on  the  Columbia,  in  the 
northeast.  We  have  no  reports  from  the  southeast,  but  only 
know  from  the  correspondence  of  those  who  have  lived  there, 
that  the  climate  has  very  much  the  same  characteristics  as  that 
of  Eastern  Oregon  generally.  We  give  also  the  average  tem- 
perature and  rainfall  of  Astoria  and  Corvallis,  representing  the 
extreme  northwest,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  and  Western 
Central  Oregon  in  the  Willamette  valley. 

average  temperature  of  five  years:  Spring,  51°  9'; 
summer,  65°  3';  autumn,  52°  8';  winter,  40°  i'.  Annual  rainfall 
for  five  years  : 43.41;  53-i2;  43-69;  4^-45;  47-70- 

Astoria,  latitude,  46°  17';  longitude,  123°  50'.  Mean  tempera- 
ture for  ten  years:  Spring,  51°  16';  summer,  61°  36';  autumn, 
53°  55';  winter,  42°  43';  year,  52°  13'.  Annual  rainfall,  60  to  67 
inches. 

Corvallis,  latitude,  44°  35';  longitude,  123°  08'.  Mean  temper- 
ature for  ten  years:  Spring,  52°  17';  summer,  67°  13';  autumn, 
53°  41';  winter,  39°  27';  year,  53°.  Annual  rainfall,  38.47  to 
42.08  inches. 

Geology  and  Minej^alogy. — Much  of  the  area  of  Oregon  has 
been  subjected  to  volcanic  action  on  a grand  scale,  and  in  Eastern 
Oregon  this  has  been  comparatively  recent  (though  probably 
not  within  the  historic  period),  and  on  the  most  stupendous  scale. 
The  Coast  Range  and  the  Blu.e  Mountains  and  their  spurs  are 
both  eozoic;  the  intermediate  Cascade  Range  is  volcanic  in  its 
surface  rocks,  with  indications  that  these  metamorphic  rocks  were 
originally  limestones  and  sandstones.  The  volcanic  action  in 
Eastern  Oregon  was  so  violent  as  to  leave  deep  fissures  or 
canons  where  the  rocks  were  rent.  Some  of  these  canons  are 
1,500  feet  deep,  and  on  their  perpendicular  walls  there  is  a record 
of  the  order  of  the  geologic  strata  rarely  accessible  elsewhere. 
Near  the  bottom  of  the  fissure  are  the  cretaceous  beds,  abound- 
ing in  marine  shells,  preserved  in  perfect  form,  but  often  filled 


METEOROLOGY  OF  OREGON. 


418 


OUR  JVE STERN  EMPIRE. 


UMATILLA. 

Latitude  45°  55'. 

Longitude  west  from  Greenwich  119°  21'. 

Elevation  above  sea-level  461  feet. 

Direction  of  Winds  in 
the  order  of  frequency. 

W.,S.  W.,  E.,calm. 

W.,  calm,  S.  W. 

Calm,  W.,  S.  W.,  S.  E. 

W.,  calm,  S.  E. 

W.,S.  E.,S.W.,calm,S. 

S.  E.,  W.,  E.,  calm. 

S.  E.,  E.,  calm,  W. 

S.  E.,  E.,  calm. 

W.,  S.  W.,  S.  E.,.E.,N. 

W.,S.W.,N.E.,E.,S.E. 

W.,  S.  W.,  E. 

W.,  S.  W.,  N.  E. 

W.,  S.  W.,  N.  E. 

W.,  S.  W.,  calm. 

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0.15 

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0.56 

0.72 

0.36 

0.95 

1.81 

1.30 

1.49 

1.96 

0.28 

0.21 

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in 

ROSEBURG. 

itude  43°  10'. 

igitude  west  from  Greenwich  123°  16'. 
vation  above  sea  537  feet. 

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in. 

30.106 

30.007 

30.002 

30-047 

30.172 

30.119 

30-259 

30.186 

30.127 

30.005 

30.101 

30.097 

30.105 

30.083 

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75 

82.5 

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i PORTLAND,  OREGON. 

' Latitude  45°  30'. 

Longitude  west  from  Greenwich  122°  27'  30". 

Elevation  of  barometer  above  sea-level  66.50  feet. 

•aatauiojEg 

uEaj\[ 

in. 

30.111 

30.043 

30-043 

30.067 

30.185 

30.161 

30.300 

30.173 

30.090 

29.971 

30  109 

30.080 

30.106 

30.079 

•Xppiuinfj 

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per  ct. 

72.5 

6a,5 

62.5 

70.5 

78.0 

82.8 

75.7 

76.1 

79-3 

78.8 

65.8 

73-5 

66.5 

62.5 

ira 

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puE  Ximuoi,\[ 

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UIIUUIXEJY 

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1 P<  ■.^--l■T^r<^rop|  pipirorO"^--!-..)- 

10 

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as  2 X 

2 1 ^ 

j }'ear 

■ 1878. 

July 

, August 

September. .. 

October 

November. . . 

December. . . 

1879. 

January  

February. . . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

GEOLOGY  AND  MINER  A LOGY  OF  ORE  G ON 


419 


with  chalcedony  or  calcareous  spar ; next  above,  the  lower  ter- 
tiary strata,  with  leaf  impressions  of  great  trees — of  palms,  yews 
and  giant  ferns,  as  well  as  of  the  oak  leaf  and  acorn  ; with  these 
are  associated  fossils  of  two  species  of  rhinoceros,  four  of  the 
oredoriy  a connecting  link  between  the  camel  and  tapir,  and  sev- 
eral genera  of  the  tapir  and  peccary  families ; and  with  them  the 
orohippus.  Upon  these  lower  tertiary  strata  supervenes  the 
period  of  volcanic  action,  with  a vast  overflow  of  lava,  mud  and 
ashes.  The  region  thus  rent  is  heaved  elsewhere  into  isolated 
cone-like  hills,  or  ridged  with  secondary  rocks,  thrown  up  dike- 
fashion,  their  strata  contorted  into  sharp  angles  or  broken  into 
chasms  filled  with  earth  or  lava.  Here  are  mountains  of  amyg7 
daloid,  heaps  of  volcanic  conglomerate,  and  cliffs  of  columnar 
basalt  walling  in  the  water-courses.  In  the  region  of  the  upper 
Des  Chutes  and  John  Day  rivers,  the  volcanic  action  is  less 
marked,  and  here  the  cretaceous  formation  approaches  the  sur- 
face. The  whole  of  the  Cascade  Range  in  the  State  gives  evi- 
dence of  volcanic  action,  and  this  extends  westward  into  the  Wil- 
lamette valley.  The  bed  of  the  Willamette  river  near  its  mouth 
is  partially  basaltic,  with  perpendicular  walls ; south  of  Oregon 
City  it  traverses  a district  of  volcanic  debris,  and  black  trap  is 
frequently  exposed  on  its  banks.  Southward  of  this  occur  thin 
strata  of  limestone,  with  fossil  bivalvular  shells,  granite  in  situ, 
and  again  basalt.  The  prevalent  rock  of  the  Willamette  valley 
is  trap,  while  at  the  head  of  the  valley  a light-colored  clayey  sand- 
stone, possibly  tertiary,  is  found.  The  fossil  teeth  and  tusks  of 
elephants  have  been  found  at  great  depths  in  the  same  valley. 
At  the  Dalles,  on  the  hillsides,  are  boulders  of  gray  and  of  a red 
granite. 

Minerals, — The  mineral  wealth  of  Oregon  is  very  great,  but 
as  yet  very  imperfectly  developed,  mainly  owing  to  the  want  of 
capital.  Gold  was  first  discovered  in  1851,  in  the  counties  of 
Jackson  and  Josephine,  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  State ; and 
mines  have  been  worked  in  them  ever  since.  Their  total  product 
up  to  the  present  time  is  estimated  at  ^27,000,000;  but  of  late 
years  the  yield  has  declined  in  consequence  of  the  want  of  water. 
Baker  and  Grant  counties,  in  Eastern  Oregon,  have  also  yielded 


420 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


many  millions  of  the  precious  metal.  In  Baker  county,  espe- 
cially in  the  vicinity  of  Baker  City,  gold  mining  is  carried  on  very 
actively  at  this  time,  and  with  good'  results.  On  the  ocean  beach, 
near  Coos  bay,  placer  mines  are  worked  to  a considerable  extent. 
Rich  gold  quartz  lodes  have  been  discovered  and  partially  worked 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  Cascade  Mountains ; but  their  dis- 
tance from  railroads,  and  the  want  of  machinery  for  working 
them,  has,  until  now,  prevented  their  development  on  a scale 
commensurate  with  their  richness.  Were  the  same  amount  of 
capital,  enterprise  and  trained  skill  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
gold  mines  of  Oregon,  that  is  now  again  increasing  the  gold 
product  of  California  at  a rapid  rate,  after  years  of  decline,  the 
former  State  would  not  be  far  behind  the  latter  in  the  production 
of  precious  metals.  The  yearly  gold  product  of  Oregon  repre- 
sents now  a value  of  nearly  $1,500,000. 

Lead  and  copper  have  been  found  in  large  quantities  in  Jack- 
son,  Josephine  and  Douglas  counties,  on  Cow  creek,  a tributary 
of  the  Umpqua,  and  also  on  the  Santiam  river.  The  mines  on 
the  latter  river  are  successfully  worked. 

Large  deposits  of  rich  iron  ore  exist  in  nearly  every  part  of 
the  State.  The  most  important  of  these  is  situated  near  Oswego, 
on  the  Willamette,  about  six  miles  south  of  Portland.  The  ore 
from  it  yields  about  fifty-four  per  cent,  of  pure  iron.  Other  ex- 
tensive deposits  exist  in  the  counties  of  Columbia,  Tillamook, 
Marion,  Clackamas,  Jackson  and  Coos.  A large  bed  of  ore  has 
been  found  at  St.  Helen’s,  on  the  Columbia. 

That  essential  element  in  the  development  of  mineral  resources, 
coal,  abounds  in  Oregon  no  less  than  iron.  Beds  of  great  thick- 
ness exist  on  Coos  bay,  in  Coos  county,  on  the  northern  Umpqua, 
and  in  Douglas  county.  Beds,  as  yet  but  partially  explored,  have 
been  found  on  Yaquina  bay,  at  Port  Orford,  near  St.  Helen’s,  on 
Pass  creek,  and  on  the  line  of  the  Oregon  and  California  Rail- 
road, and  at  different  other  points  in  Clackamas,  Clatsop  and 
Tillamook  counties.  But  only  a few  of  these  coal  mines  are 
regularly  worked.  The  Coos  bay  mines  keep  a fleet  of  schooners 
busy  carrying  coal  to  San  Francisco,  where  it  is  highly  esteemed, 
and  brings  about  $i  i a ton.  With  the  exception  of  that  obtained 


MINERAL  WEALTH  OE  OREGON. 


421 

from  the  Queen  Charlotte  Islands,  it  is  the  best  coal  produced 
on  the  Pacific  coast. 

What,  with  the  abundance  of  coal  and  the  immense  beds  of 
iron  ore,  the  day  cannot  be  far  distant  when  Oregon  will  have  a 
well-developed  iron  industry. 

There  are  also  quarries  of  limestone,  brown  stone  and  marble 
in  the  State. 

Of  the  present  outlook  for  gold  and  silver  mining  in  the  State, 
one  Surveyor-General,  Hon.  James  C.  Tolman,  said  in  his  report 

“ The  mining  interests  of  Oregon  are  assuming  an  importance 
and  permanent  assurance  of  profit  not  heretofore  exhibited. 
Gravel  mining  is  being  extensively  prosecuted  in  some  district? 
with  the  aid  of  the  most  approved  and  extensive  machinery, 
although  the  past  year  only  has  been  witness  to  their  general  in- 
troduction. A new  era  has  undoubtedly  dawned  upon  that  in- 
dustry in  this  State.  The  existence  in  Southern  and  Middle 
Eastern  Oregon  of  immense  deposits  of  auriferous  gravel  has 
long  been  known;  but  prospectors  and  men  seeking  only  shallow 
surface  diggings  in  connection  with  water  do  not  generally  have 
the  capital  and  enterprise  necessary  to  prosecute  hydraulic  mining 
of  the  modern  kinds.  Within  the  past  two  or  three  years  capital 
has  been  attracted  to  these  deposits,  wherein  in  two  counties  of 
Southern  Oregon  alone  I am  credibly  informed  that  many  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  dollars  have  been  expended  in  opening  up  . 
claims — in  the  constructing  of  ditches  and  arrangement  of  ma- 
chinery principally.  Much  labor  and  time,  as  well  as  money,  is 
required  to  develop  and  put  in  paying  order  any  of  these  claims, 
and  although  numbers  of  them  are  now  in  working  order,  few  or 
none  of  them  have  yet  been  sufficiently  tested  to  develop  their 
real  worth.  A full  ‘ clean  up  ’ is  the  only  fair  test  of  value,  even 
after  months  of  labor  and  many  thousands  of  dollars  of  expen- 
diture. 

“This  must  be  ranked  mainly  as  an  agricultural  State,  though 
mining  is,  and  will  indefinitely  continue  to  be,  a large  factor  in 
the  sum  of  our  productions,  both  in  gravel  and  quartz  mining. 
Our  people  have  never  been  subjected  to  the  emotional  risks 

70 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


422 

occasioned  by  stock  boards  and  wild  cat  speculations  which  have 
swept  other  mining  regions,  and  are  thus  more  disposed  to  weigh 
the  chances  of  profit  in  any  enterprise  offering  inducements. 
Hence  our  mining  interests  have  lagged,  only  to  be  placed  upon 
a profitable  basis  when  undertaken  at  all. 

“ The  quartz  mining  of  this  district  has  also  attracted  a re- 
newed share  of  attention.  Heretofore,  with  but  few  exceptions, 
this  class  of  maning  has  been  lightly  employed,  and  has  yielded 
but  small  returns,  for  precisely  the  reasons  which  have  been 
offered  in  regard  to  the  small  effort  expended  in  placers.  Some 
wonderfully  rich  deposits  were  discovered  many  years  ago,  and 
were  worked  with  immense  profit.  Notable  among  them  were 
the  Gold  Hill  and  Steamboat  or  Fowler  lands,  in  Jackson  and 
Josephine  counties  respectively.  From  these,  by  the  ordinary 
processes  then  in  use,  several  hundred  thousands  of  dollars  were 
taken  from  the  surface  rock  alone  in  the  space  of  a few  months. 
In  one  instance,  from  the  Gold  Hill  ledge,  one  gentleman  secured 
a trifle  over  1,600  pounds  of  surface  rock,  from  which  he  took 
$30,000.  When  these  surface  deposits  were  exhausted  (nearly 
twenty  years  ago)  by  crushing  in  ‘ arastras  ’ and  other  almost 
equally  primitive  methods,  and  the  serious  and  expensive  work 
of  sinking  shafts,  driving  tunnels,  etc.,  began,  those  mines  were 
abandoned  and  have  lain  idle  till  this  day,  with  the  exception 
of  an  effort  now  being  made  to  resume  work  on  the  Steamboat. 

“In  Eastern  Oregon  quartz  mining  has  been  steadily  followed, 
in  a small  way,  by  gentlemen  of  limited  means,  for  a number  of 
years,  yielding  fair  returns  where  effort  merited  reward.  Several 
small  mills  are  now  in  operation  there,  and  prospecting  is  pushed 
with  considerable  vigor.  I have  no  data  as  to  average  yield,  but 
am  assured  that  it  has  been  uniformly  satisfactory.  The  general 
outlook,  however,  is  better  now  in  regard  to  mining  than  it  has 
been  before  for  many  years.  In  the  course  of  time  I believe  this 
State,  to  the  extent  of  its  mining  area,  will  rank  with  the  most 
favored  mining  localities  of  the  coast.  Given  the  mines,  and  we 
certainly  possess  facilities  unsurpassed  by  any  region — cheap  fuel 
and  labor,  abundance  of  water  and  plenty  of  all  kinds  of  pro- 
visions, all  easily  obtained.” 


ZOOLOGY  AND  LIVE-STOCK. 


423 


Zoology. — The  beasts  of  prey  are  identical  with  those  of  Cali- 
fornia ; the  grizzly  bear,  black  and  cinnamon  bears,  the  cougar, 
or  panther,  and  several  of  the  smaller  felidce,  the  catamount,  lynx 
and  ocelot,  the  fisher,  otter,  marten,  mink  and  beaver,  several 
species  of  fox,  the  gray  wolf,  possibly  the  raccoon  ; and  of  game 
animals,  elk,  deer  of  two  species,  antelope,  bighorn,  or  Rocky 
Mountain  sheep,  rabbits  and  hares,  including  the  jackass  rabbit, 
and  two  or  three  hares  found  only  on  the  Pacific  coast;  all  the 
rodents  of  the  coast ; and  of  game  birds,  wild  swans,  wild  geese 
and  ducks  of  many  species,  pheasants,  sage  hens  and  other 
grouse,  quail  and  snipe  of  extraordinary  size,  and  a great  variety 
of  song  birds  and  birds  of  prey.  The  waters  of  Oregon  abound 
in  fish  of  great  delicacy  and  economic  value.  There  are  six  or 
seven  species  of  salmon  native  to  the  coast ; and  the  Eastern 
salmon  and  lake  salmon  have  been  introduced.  The  salmon 
forms  an  important  item  in  the  products  of  the  State.  Trout  of 
great  size  and  excellence  are  found  in  the  streams ; sturgeon, 
tom  cod,  flounders  and  other  edible  fish  are  abundant.  The 
shad  and  black  and  sea  bass  have  been  introduced.  Most  of 
the  edible  shell  fish  are  found  in  great  abundance  on  the  coast. 

The  Timber  and  Lumber  Trade. — The  magnificent  forests 
of  Oregon  supply  an  immense  amount  of  timber  and  lumber 
for  San  Francisco  and  other  California  ports,  and  also  for  the 
Mexican  and  South  American  markets.  For  ship-building, 
mine-timbering  and  house-building,  as  well  as  for  the  choicest 
furniture,  the  Oregon  woods  are  the  best  in  the  world. 

Historical  Data. — Spain  seems  to  have  had  the  first  title — that 
of  maritime  discovery — to  Oregon  and  Washington  Territory, 
having  visited  and  mapped  the  coast  nearly  to  the  fifty-fifth 
degree  of  north  latitude,  in  1592  by  the  Greek  pilot,  De  Fuca, 
in  1640  by  Admiral  Fonte,  and  subsequently  by  other  explorers. 
This  title,  with  whatever  validity  it  possessed,  was  expressly  con- 
veyed to  the  United  States  by  Spain  by  the  treaty  of  Florida, 
concluded  in  1819.  The  title  of  the  United  States  to  Oregon  and 
Washington  Territory  by  no  means,  however,  rested  on  this  alone. 
Other  valid  claims  were  the  following : the  discovery  and  explo- 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


424 

ration  of  Columbia  river  by  Captain  Robert  Gray,  commanding 
the  ship  “Columbia,”  in  1792,  who  gave  the  name  of  his  ship  to 
the  river;  his  previous  exploration  of  the  coast  in  connection  with 
Captain  Kendrick,  in  the  “Washington  ” and  the  “Columbia,” 
and  his  discovery  and  naming  of  Gray’s  Harbor,  and  exploration 
of  the  Straits  of  San  Juan  de  Fuca  and  Puget  Sound,  more 
fully  detailed  in  the  chapter  on  Washington  Territory;  the 
purchase  of  Louisiana  and  all  that  belonged  to  it  from  the 
French  in  1803,  this  including  the  Spanish  title  so  far  as  they  had 
received  it  from  the  French  in  1 762  ;*  the  exploration  of  Columbia 
river  from  its  sources  to  its  mouth  by  Captains  Lewis  and  Clarke, 
by  order  of  our  government  in  1804,  1805,  and  its  continued 
occupation  by  American  citizens  from  1810,  as  a result  of  the 
knowledge  of  its  resources  gained  from  the  report  of  Lewis  and 
Clarke. 

In  1810  the  first  house  was  built  in  Oregon  by  Captain  Winship, 
a New  Englander,  but  the  house  was  carried  away  by  a flood  the 
following  year.  In  181 1,  John  Jacob  Astor,  of  New  York,  estab- 
lished a trading-post  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river,  which  was 
named  “Astoria”  in  his  honor.  The  venture  proved  disastrous, 
mainly  in  consequence  of  the  war  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  in  1812.  The  British  took  possession  of  the  post 
in  1813  and  called  it  Fort  George.  Subsequently  it  became  the 
property  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  and  remained  in  its  pos- 
session until  1848.  The  Northwest  Fur  Company  disputed  for 
a time  the  rule  of  the  latter  company  on  the  Pacific  coast,  but 
had  to  succumb  in  a few  years,  and  was  absorbed  by  its  rival  in 
1824,  from  which  time,  till  1848,  the  latter  ruled  supreme  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Columbia  and  Willamette. 

In  1824  the  first  fruit  trees  were  planted  in  Oregon,  and  in 


* This  claim  to  Oregon  in  consequence  of  the  Louisiana  purchase  was  a veiy  weak  one,  and 
has  been  abandoned  by  Greenhow  and  some  other  American  authorities.  The  great  name  of 
Thomas  Jefferson,  who  was  President  when  the  Louisiana  treaty  was  negotiated,  has  also  been 
cited  against  it;  but  the  other  claims  were  sufficient,  and  their  justness  and  completeness  cannot 
lie  denied.  See  on  this  subject  two  very  able  and  conclusive  papers  by  John  J.  Anderson, 
Ph.  D.,  author  of  several  works  on  the  history  of  the  United  States,  entitled  “ Did  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  extend  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  ? ” and  “ Our  Title  to  Oregon  ” — San  Francisco  and  New 
York,  1880. 


HISTORICAL  DATA. 


425 

1831  the  first  regular  attempts 'at  farming  were  made  by  some 
of  the  retired  servants  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  In  1832 
the  first  school  was  opened.  Between  1834  and  1837  missionaries 
of  various  denominations  arrived,  bringing  the  first  cattle  with 
them.  In  1838  the  first  printing  press  arrived  in  Oregon.  In 
1841  Commodore  Wilkes  visited  the  Columbia  on  an  exploring 
expedition  at  the  instance  of  the  United  States  government. 

From  1816  till  1846  the  American  and  British  governments 
had  held  Oregon  “by  joint  occupancy”  under  a formal  treaty, 
but  neither  nation  had  organized  any  form  of  civil  government 
there.  In  1843  the  inhabitants  organized  a provisional  govern- 
ment, which  continued  in  force  till  1848.  In  1846,  after  a long 
discussion,  a treaty  was  made  with  Great  Britain  by  which  the 
whole  territory  south  of  49°  was  ceded  to  the  United  States. 

In  1848  Oregon  Territory  was  organized,  and  in  1849  received 
its  first  territorial  governor. 

In  1859  it  was  received  into  the  Union  as  a State.  Since  that 
time  it  has  had  some  Indian  troubles,  but  these  are  now  all 
quieted,  by  the  banishment  of  the  Indian  offenders,  and  the 
location  of  the  Indians  on  reservations  where  they  are  cared  .♦or 
and  educated. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

TEXAS, 

Texas  is  the  southernmost  State  of  “Our  Western  Empire,” 
and  joins  on  its  western  border  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  of  which 
it  was  once  an  integral  part.  It  is  a vast  domain,  extending  from 
the  parallel  of  25°  51'  to  that  of  36°  30'  north  latitude,  and  from 
the  meridian  of  93°  27'  to  that  of  106°  43'  west  longitude  from 
Greenwich.  It  is  of  very  irregular  shape,  a part  of  its  boundaries 
being  of  mathematico-geographical  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude, 
and  a much  greater  portion  following  the  natural  lines  of  gulf 
coast,  bay  and  river.  Its  northern  boundaries  are  New  Mexico 
from  the  Rio  Grande  eastward,  to  the  103d  meridian,  the  Indian 
Territory  (the  narrow  strip  in  the  northwest  of  that  Territory) 
from  the  103d  to  the  looth  meridian,  and  the  Red  river  from  the 


426 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  TEXAS. 


looth  meridian  to  the  94th,  where  it  crosses  the  Arkansas  bound- 
ary. This  river  separates  it  from  the  Indian  Territory.  Its  eastern 
limits  are  the  meridian  of  94°  10',  as  far  south  as  the  thirty-second 
parallel,  Arkansas  and  Louisiana  being  its  actual  bounds,  and 
from  the  thirty-second  parallel  the  Sabine  river  and  lake  or  estuary 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  gulf  itself  thence  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte.  The  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  forms  its 
southwestern  border,  separating  it  from  the  Republic  of  Mexico, 
as  far  as  to  El  Paso,  where  it  passes  into  New  Mexico.  The  103d 
meridian,  passing  through  the  Llano  Estacado,  forms  its  western 
boundary.  Its  extreme  length  from  southeast  to  northwest  is 
somewhat  more  than  800  miles,  and  its  extreme  breadth  about 
750  miles.  Its  area  is  274,365  square  miles,  or  175,587,840  acres. 
This  area  is  equal  to  that  of  the  German  Empire,  with  Holland, 
Belgium,  Switzerland  and  Denmark  added  to  it.  It  is  one-third 
larger  than  the  Republic  of  Erance.  It  is  four  times  larger  than 
all  New  England,  and  nearly  equal  to  the  combined  area  of  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Indiana  and  Illinois. 

Face  of  the  Country. — It  is  a vast  inclined  plane,  with  a gradual 
descent  from  the  northern  and  northwestern  boundary  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  coast  counties  are  nearly  level  for  sixty  or 
eighty  miles  inland ; the  surface  then  becomes  undulating,  with 
alternate  gradual  elevations  and  depressions,  and  this  feature  in- 
creases as  we  proceed  toward  the  northwest,  until  it  becomes 
hilly  and  finally  mountainous  in  some  of  the  far  western  counties; 
the  Sierra  Charrotte  are  the  most  eastern  of  these  mountain 
ranges,  and  between  these  and  the  Rio  Grande,  in  Pecos,  El  Paso 
and  Presidio  counties,  are  the  Guadalupe,  the  Pah-cut,  the  Apache, 
the  Sierra  Hueco,  the  Sierra  del  Diablo,  the  Sierra  del  Muerio, 
the  Chanatte  Mountains,  the  Sierra  Merino,  the  Sierra  Cariso, 
Eagle  Mountain,  the  Sierra  Blanca,  and  stretching  along  the  Rio 
Grande  for  many  miles’ the  Sierra  Blancha.  Most  of  these  moun- 
tains carry  leads  of  silver,  lead  and  copper.  The  highest  of  them 
do  not  attain  an  elevation  of  more  than  5,000  feet.  In  other  por- 
tions of  Texas  there  are  hills,  and  occasionally  a summit  towering 
above  the  plain,  but  no  mountains  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word. 
The  gradual  character  of  the  ascending  slope  of  the  country  is 
71 


COTTON  TRAIN, 


COTTON  PRESS. 

VIEW  OF  GALVESTON  HARBOR. 


CATTLE  STAMPEDE. 


OrK  lV/<S7'Kh\W  EMPIRE. 


427 


indicated  by  the  following  elevations  ascertained  by  the  coast 
survey  and  railway  surveys:  Goliad,  50  feet;  Houston,  65  ; Gon- 
zales, 150;  Jefferson,  226;  Silver  Lake,  350;  Marshall,  377; 
Webberville,  394;  Brenham,  435  ; Dallas,  481 ; San  Antonio,  575  ; 
Fort  Worth,  629 ; Austin,  650 ; Sherman,  734 ; Fort  Inge,  Uralde 
county,  845  ; Weatherford,  1,000;  Sisterdale,  in  Kendall  county,. 
1,000;  Fort  Clark,  Kenney  county,  1,000;  Fredericksburg,  1,614; 
Mason,  1,800;  Fort  Concho,  1,750;  Fort  McKavitt,  2,050;  Fort 
Bliss,  El  Paso  county,  3,830;  Fort  Davis,  Presidio  county,  4,700 
feet. 

Rivers,  Bays,  Estuaries  and  Lakes. — The  State,  except  in  the 
region  of  the  Lla^io  Estacado,  or  Staked  Plain,  in  the  northwest, 
is  well  watered.  The  Canadian  river,  the  largest  tributary  of  the 
Arkansas,  and  the  Red  river,  which  forms  a part  of  its  northern 
boundary,  both  have  their  head-waters  in  Northwestern  Texas 
and  New  Mexico,  but  neither  of  them  receive  any  very  large 
affluents  in  Texas,  though  the  North,  Salt,  Middle  and  South 
forks  of  the  Red  river  are  considerable  streams.  Beginning  now 
at  the  east,  the  Sabine  river,  which  for  nearly  200  miles  forms  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  State,  is  a large  and  for  much  of  its  route 
a sluggish  stream,  with  several  considerable  affluents ; and  the 
Neches,  or  Naches,  a river  of  about  the  same  size,  runs  nearly 
parallel  with  it,  both  discharging  their  waters  into  the  Sabine 
lake.  The  affluents  of  these  streams  and  of  those  to  be  men- 
tioned interlock  with  each  other,  and  though  not  of  large  size 
water  the  country  well.  All  the  rivers  of  Texas  except  the  Can- 
adian and  Red  river  have  a general  direction  toward  the  south- 
east ; at  first  perhaps  rather  to  the  south-southeast,  but  each 
successive  river  makes  a larger  angle  with  the  meridian.  After 
the  Naches  come  successively  the  Trinity,  the  Brazos,  with  sev- 
eral large  affluents,  the  Colorado,  the  largest  river  of  Central 
Texas,  having  its  sources  on  the  borders  of  the  Staked  Plain,  and 
fed  by  a hundred  or  more  tributaries,  the  Guadalupe  and  its  large 
affluent  the  San  Antonio,  Mission  river,  Aransas  river,  the 
Nueces,  with  its  tributary,  the  Rio  Frio,  the  Aqua  Dulce,  and  a 
dozen  smaller  streams  ; and  on  its  southwest  border  the  Rio 
Grande  del  Norte  and  its  great  tributary,  the  Rio  Pecos. 


rO/'(V,AA’  /)/ 17S/().\’S  oi'  lEXAS. 


428 

None  of  the  Texas  rivers  are  navigable  tor  any  considerable 
distance  except  at  high  water,  but  by  dredging  and  the  construc- 
tion of  a short  canal,  Galveston  bay  and  Buffalo  bayou  have 
been  rendered  navigable  as  far  as  Houston,  fifty  miles  from 
Galveston. 

Most  of  the  so-called  lakes  in  Texas  are  really  estuaries  and 
bays,  and  when  somewhat  narrower  and  without  much  current, 
they  are  called  bayous.  Of  these  bays  and  estuaries  the  prin- 
cipal are  Sabine  lake,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sabine  river,  Galveston 
bay  and  its  two  arms.  East  and  West  bay,  Matagorda  bay  and 
Lavaca  bay,  connected  with  it,  Espiritu  Santo  and  San  Antonio 
bays,  one  opening  into  the  other,  with  several  small  bays  con- 
nected with  them,  Aransas  and  Copano  bays.  Corpus  Christi  and 
Nueces  bays,  and  the  Long  Lagoon,  or  sound,  Lagima  de  la 
Madre.  The  only  considerable  lakes  not  estuaries  are  Caddo 
lake,  in  the  east,  Lorked  lake,  in  Zavala  county,  Espantosa,  in 
Dimmitt  county,  and  three  large  salt  lakes  in  Presidio  county,  in 
the  northwest. 

Divisions  of  the  State.— Y[\q  State  is  divided  for  civil  and  de- 
scriptive purposes  into — i.  The  coast  counties;  2.  Eastern 
Texas;  3.  Central  Texas;  4.  Northern  Texas;  5.  Western  and 
Southwestern  Texas;  6.  Northwestern  Texas. 

In  the  coast  counties  the  soil  and  climate  are  especially  adapted 
to  the  culture  of  the  sugar-cane,  sea  island  cotton,  rice  and  many 
semi-tropical  fruits  and  vegetables. 

The  eastern  portion  of  the  State,  including  some  eighteen 
counties,  is  heavily  timbered,  and  from  here  are  drawn  nearly  all 
the  immense  supplies  of  pine  lumber  required  in  the  prairie. por- 
tions of  the  State.  The  natural  resources  of  this  section  are 
varied.  In  it  are  vast  deposits  of  iron  ore  of  excellent  quality 
and  extensive  beds  of  lignite.  Large  crops  of  cotton,  corn  and 
other  grains  are  grown  in  its  valleys,  and  its  'uplands  are  noted 
for  the  production  of  fruits  and  vegetables.  It  is  generally  well 
watered  by  streams  and  springs. 

Central  and  Northern  Texas,  though  generally  a rich  prairie 
country,  is  by  no  means  devoid  of  a sufficiency  of  timber  for  ordi- 
nary purposes,  its  numerous  streams  being  fringed  with  a large 


OUR  WESTERN-  EMPIRE. 


420 

growth  of  forest  trees.  It  is  also  traversed  by  what  is  known  as 
the  upper  and  lower  Cross  Timbers — a belt  of  oak,  elm  and  other 
timber,  from  one  to  six  miles  wide. 

Western  and  Southwestern  Texas  are  the  great  pastoral  re- 
gions of  the  State.  The  surface  is  generally  a high,  rolling  table- 
land, watered  by  creeks  and  ponds,  but  with  little  timber,  except 
along  the  streams  and  on  some  of  the  hills  and  mountain  regions 
of  the  western  part,  where  forests  of  cedar,  mountain  juniper, 
oak,  etc.,  exist. 

The  luxuriant  growth  of  rich,  native  grasses  found  in  this  sec- 
tion renders  it  pre-eminently  a stock-raising  country,  and  as  such 
it  is  unexcelled  by  any  other  portion  of  the  continent.  The  pre- 
cious metals  and  other  mineral  deposits  are  known  to  exist  in 
this  section  of  the  State,  and  it  is  believed  their  development  will 
be  rapid  when  railroads  shall  have  been  built  across  it. 

Northwestern  Texas  includes  not  only  the  mountainous  region 
comprised  in  Pecos,  Presidio  and  El  Paso  counties,  but  the  un 
organized  region  known  as  the  Territory  of  Bexar,  and  Tom 
Green  county,  and  sixty-three  counties  north  of  and  east  of  these, 
extending  up  to  the  parallel  of  36°  30',  and  eastward  to  the  me- 
ridian of  99°  30'.  This  region,  a part  of  which  is  known  as  the 
“ Pan-handle  of  Texas,”  has  an  area  of  more  than  90,000  square 
miles,  and  perhaps  one-third  of  it  belongs  to  the  Llano  Estacado, 
or  Staked  Plain.  It  is  not  well  watered,  and  portions  of  it  are 
not  watered  at  all  except  by  wells.  Its  rainfall  is  very  small,  and 
the  pasturage,  though  scanty,  is  nutritious  where  any  water  can 
be  obtained.  The  mountainous  portion  is  rich  in  minerals.  Sil- 
ver, lead,  copper  and  iron  are  found  there,  and  gold  probably 
will  be.  If,  as  is  proposed,  the  great  Staked  Plain  is  rendered 
habitable  by  water  supplied  from  artesian  wells,  this  will  be  an 
excellent  country  for  pasturage.  Flocks  and  herds  sufficient  to 
supply  the  world  could  be  raised  there. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — Texas  has  never  had  a State  geo- 
logical survey;  it  has  been  once  or  twice  attempted,  but  has  soon 
failed  for  the  want  of  means  for  its  prosecution.  It  is  said  that 
the  new  constitution  of  the  State  prohibits  anything  of  the  kind — 
a most  unwise  provision,  if  true,  as  no  State  in  the  Union  would 


430 


GEOLOGY  AND  M/NEE  A LOGY. 


be  as  much  benefited  by  such  a survey  as  Texas.  From  some 
rapid  and  superficial  geological  reconnoissances  of  the  State,  we 
glean  the  following  general  view  of  the  geology  and  mineralogy 
of  the  State. 

Mr.  N.  A.  Taylor,  a Texan  geologist,  has  gathered  together  the 
sum  of  what  is  known  in  regard  to  it,  though  acknowledging  that 
extensive  districts,  like  that  from  Bandera  west  to  the  Rio  Grande, 
and  that  from  San  Antonio  southwest  to  the  Rio  Grande,  have 
not  been  explored  even  superficially,  and  that  even  the  formations 
which  approach  the  surface  are  entirely  unknown,  though  they 
are  conjectured  to  be  Tertiary : 

“The  coast-belt,  like  that  of  the  other  gulf  and  southern  Atlantic 
States,  is  alluvial,  though  somewhat  less  fertile  than  the  deposits 
of  the  Mississippi  delta ; it  is,  however,  well  adapted  to  corn, 
cotton,  sugar-cane  and  the  tropical  fruits. 

“From  the  best  data  and  my  own  observations,  the  Tertiary 
formations  occupy  all  Eastern  Texas  as  high  as  Red  river,  and 
all  the  lower  portion  of  the  State  from  the  gulf  lOO  to  150  miles, 
and  farther,  into  the  interior.  If  there  is  any  exception  to  this, 
it  is  in  the  remote  southwest,  which  I have  not  visited.  Of  this 
great  Territory,  the  Pliocene,  or  newer  Tertiary,  occupies  the 
tide-water  region,  and  a considerable  portion  of  Eastern  Texas 
above  tide-water.  All  this  region  is  low  and  level,  and  wonder- 
fully productive  when  well  drained  and  well  treated.  The 
Miocene,  or  middle  Tertiary,  appears  here  and  there  in  scattered 
patches  above  the  Pliocene,  and  is  quite  largely  developed  about 
Huntsville.  These  lands  are  largely  sandy,  and  usually  hilly  or 
broken.  From  the  melting  nature  of  the  soil  they  are  also  cut 
up  by  considerable  gullies  and  ravines.  Usually  productive,  but 
cannot  resist  drought.  Above  these  comes  the  Eocene,  or 
oldest  Tertiary,  which  occupies  a larger  space.  These  lands  are 
rolling,  and  contain  much  very  graceful  and  beautiful  scenery. 
The  waves  and  swells  rise  higher  and  higher  as  you  go  north 
and  west.  This  formation  has  a very  small  percentage  of  poor 
land. 

“There  are,  no  doubt,  here  and  there,  many  intrusions  on  a 
small  scale  of  older  strata  through  these  formations,  but  I know  of 


OUA^  I FES  TEA  AT  EMPIRE. 


431 

only  one  of  any  importance.  That  is  at  the  place  called  Damon’s 
Mound,  in  Brazoria,  where  several  acres  of  valuable  limestone 
rise  many  feet  above  the  Pliocene  which  surrounds  it.  This 
limestone  cannot  be  later  than  Eocene,  and  may  be  older.  It  is 
the  only  stone  I have  seen  in  the  Pliocene  territory  of  Texas, 
and  some  day  it  will  be  very  valuable  for  quicklime. 

“Above  the  Eocene,  the  Cretaceous  formation  rises  like  a 
rampart  and  extends  north  and  west  a great  distance — how  far 
it  is  not  certainly  known.  Many  say  that  it  goes  on  northward, 
with  occasional  interruptions,  until  it  reaches  the  plateau  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  including  the  Staked  Plains.  This  is  the  idea 
of  Professor  Buckley.  With  all  deference,  I believe  it  is  not  so. 
I believe  there  is  very  little  Cretaceous  after  reaching  the  great 
outburst  of  Plutonic  and  Metamorphic  rocks  which  extend 
through  Burnet,  Llano,  Mason  and  Menard  counties,  and  farther 
west  to  an  unknown  distance.  After  passing  this  primitive 
region,  the  country  assumes  outlines  totally  unlike  the  Cretaceous 
as  elsewhere  seen.  I have  no  doubt,  indeed  I know,  that  it 
appears  here  and  there  even  to  El  Paso,  on  the  Rio  Grande,  but 
the  general  formation  I believe  to  be  Jurassic,  including  the 
Staked  Plains,  and  have  little  doubt  that  investigation  will  prove 
it  to  be  so. 

“Just  north  of  the  primitive  region  of  Llano,  etc.,  there  is  a 
large  development  of  Carboniferous,  extending  northeast  toward 
the  Indian  Territory,  and  embracing,  as  is  calculated,  30,000 
square  miles  of  coal-bearing  strata.  It  is  no  doubt  a continua- 
tion of  the  Arkansas  or  Ozark  system.  The  Permian  formation 
here  and  there  crosses  this  coal  territory,  and  probably  flanks 
it  all  round.  The  Permian  is  also  undoubtedly  developed  largely 
farther  north  and  west.  Not  far  from  Fort  Concho  it  terminates, 
and  here,  closely  connected  with  it,  there  is  a narrow  streak  of 
coal  strata,  in  which  an  excellent  coal  has  been  found.  As  in 
England,  so  in  Texas,  this  formation,  wherever  found,  seems  to 
indicate  unerringly  the  near  presence  of  coal.  I believe  the 
Permian  may  be  found  almost  anywhere  near  the  foot  of  the 
Staked  Plains. 

“ Beyond  the  Pecos,  in  that  almost  unknown  region  below  the 


4.^2 


THE  MINERALS  OF  TEXAS. 


El  Paso  stage  route,  it  is  difficult  to  say  what  is  the  ruling 
geological  formation.  All  the  formations,  except  the  Tertiary, 
seem  to  have  been  thrown  together  in  one  vast  pile  of  ruin, 
penetrated  by  valleys  of  exquisite  beauty  and  fertility.  Here  we 
find  all  manner  of  Plutonic  eruptions,  frequently  capped  and 
flanked  by  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  rocks.  Perhaps  basaltic 
rocks  predominate.  They  certainly  assume  some  very  immense 
forms,  sometimes  rising  into  perpendicular  cliffs  many  miles  long 
and  a thousand  or  more  feet  high.  The  Permian  also  appears 
here,  filled  with  selenite  and  other  forms  of  gypsum.  This  is 
the  most  interesting  region  in  the  world  to  the  geologist. 

'^Minerals. — If  we  are  filled  with  doubt  in  regard  to  the  geo- 
logical formations  of  Texas,  we  are  much  more  so  in  regard  to 
the  minerals  that  lie  hidden  in  her  strata.  As  regards  the  Ter- 
tiaries,  they  contain  many  valuable  deposits  of  iron  ore  in  East- 
ern Texas,  some  of  which  have  been  a little  worked  and  found 
to  yield  from  forty  to  sixty  per  cent,  of  metallic  iron.  These  ores 
are  the  brown  oxides  or  limonite.  The  forests  are  dense  in  this 
region,  and  charcoal  is  obtainable  at  a nominal  price.  Lime- 
stones are  usually  within  easy  distance,  sufficient  to  supply  fluxes. 
These  ores  are  also  abundant  in  Robertson,  Limestone  and  other 
counties  of  Central  Texas,  but  have  received  no  attention.  The 
Eocene  also  contains  very  large  deposits  of  lignite,  some  of 
which,  particularly  that  found  in  Limestone  county,  is  a superior 
variety  of  that  sort  of  coal.  It  would  prove  excellent  for  gas- 
making,  but  will  not  coke.  It  burns  furiously  in  a grate,  but 
emits  an  unpleasant  odor  in  combustion,  which  goes  through  the 
whole  house  and  may  even  be  smelled  at  a distance  outside. 
Some  of  these  layers  of  lignite  are  said  to  be  at  least  twelve 
feet  thick.  They  are  associated  with  brown  and  blue  shales, 
and  rather  soft  brown  sand-stone.  There  is  some  gypsum  in 
the  Eocene — notably  about  the  falls  of  the  Brazos,  in  Falls 
county,  where  it  is  in  considerable  quantity.  It  is  pure  enough 
for  manufacturing  into  plaster  of  Paris,  and  there  is  none  better 
for  fertilizing.  West  of  Corpus  Christi  large  deposits  of  salt  are 
formed  annually  in  the  lagoons  near  the  gulf.  In  the  winter  these 
basins  are  filled  with  water  from  the  gulf,  which  evaporates  in 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


433 

summer,  leaving  the  clean  white  salt.  Enough  of  it  is  thus 
formed  here  every  year  to  salt  all  Texas.  During  the  war  these 
deposits  supplied  a large  portion  of  Texas  with  salt. 

“The  Cretaceous  contains  a good  deal  of  gypsum,  and  lime- 
stone for  building  or  quicklime,  without  end.  About  two  miles 
from  Round  Rock,  on  the  International  railroad,  there  is  a great 
quantity  of  gypsum,  quite  pure.  There  is  also  a good  deal  of  it 
about  Mount  Bonnel,  near  Austin.  Both  of  these  points  are  so 
convenient  to  transportation  that  it  is  singular  that  some  one  has 
not  engaged  in  making  plaster  of  Paris.  Nearly  all  that  article 
used  in  Texas  comes  from  Newfoundland,  and  this  when  we  have 
it  just  as  good  and  in  great  abundance  right  at  our  own  doors. 
No  chalk  has  ever  been  found  in  the  Cretaceous  system  of  Texas, 
so  far  as  I know. 

“ The  granitic  and  metamorphic  region,  running  through  Burnet, 
Llano,  Mason,  Menard,  etc.,  abounds  in  mineral  wealth.  There 
are  probably  no  larger  and  certainly  no  better  deposits  of  iron 
ore  in  the  world  than  those  of  Llano  county ; none  easier  to  get 
at  These  ores  are  magnetic  and  specular,  and  often  appear  in 
immense  masses  resembling  solid  iron.  They  have  been  wrought 
to  a very  small  extent  and  found  to  yield  from  seventy  to  eighty 
per  cent  of  iron,  equal  to  the  best  in  the  world.  With  such 
immense  masses  of  iron  as  this,  Texas  ought  to  furnish  not  only 
her  own  railroad  iron,  but  also  ship  it  to  other  lands.  This  will 
be  done  in  time.  At  present  Austin  is  the  nearest  point  to  a 
railroad,  about  a hundred  miles  off.  The  region  is  generally 
timbered,  furnishing  plenty  of  material  for  charcoal ; some  coal 
has  also  been  discovered  in  this  region,  and  it  is  known  to  exist 
abundantly  in  Coleman  and  other  counties  not  far  off  There  is 
also  abundance  of  limestone.  Soapstone,  valuable  for  furnaces, 
also  abounds.  Some  copper,  silver,  and  even  gold,  have  been 
found  in  this  region,  but  not  yet,  I believe,  in  paying  quantities. 
Its  great  mineral  wealth  is  doubtless  its  iron.  Marble  of  excellent 
quality  is  found  in  places  throughout  this  region.  Perhaps  the 
largest  deposit  of  it  is  at  the  Marble  Falls  of  the  Colorado,  where 
the  river  for  a considerable  distance  cuts  its  way  through  walls 
and  mountains  of  solid  marble.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  this 


434 


THE  MINERALS  OF  TEXAS. 


region  to  find  the  people  living  in  huts  or  cabins  surrounded 
with  fences  built  of  the  finest  marble.  The  marble  is  of  various 
shades — some  pure  white,  some  variegated  with  red  and  blue 
markings,  and  some  black.’  This  place  is  about  sixty  miles  above 
Austin,  and  the  marble  might  be  brought  down  the  river  in  flat- 
boats,  but  it  is  not. 

“ In  the  same  region  there  are  numerous  salines,  issuing,  it  is 
said,  from  Silurian  rocks,  and  some  salt  of  a very  fine  quality  is 
manufactured — enough  to  supply  the  w^ants  of  the  people  around 
there.  This  whole  region  is  very  picturesque,  and  has  some  of 
the  loveliest  scenery  on  the  American  continent. 

“ Below  this  primitive  region,  lying  out  in  the  post-oaks  to  the 
southeast,  are  numerous  strange  boulders,  which  have  been  borne 
many  miles  from  their  native  beds  by  some  remarkable  occur- 
rence which  took  place  about  the  close  of  the  Cretaceous  era. 
Some  of  these  lost  rocks  are  many  tons  in  weight.  The  Jurassic 
and  Permian  beds  are  known  to  contain  great  deposits  of  copper^ 
gypsum  and  salt.  Indeed,  the  largest  deposit  of  gypsum  known 
in  the  world  is  found  in  Northwest  Texas  along  Red  river,  and 
extending  a great  distance  into  the  State.  The  gypsum  belt  is 
a hundred  or  more  miles  in  width,  and  of  unknown  thickness. 
The  gypsum  is  of  all  sorts,  from  the  purest  alabaster  and  selenite 
to  the  common  massive  forms.  There  is  enough  of  it  to  supply 
the  demands  of  the  universe  for  centuries.  All  the  streams  that 
wander  through  this  great  bed  are  impregnated  with  this  mineral 
and  salt — some  to  such  a degree  that  even  the  animals  will  not 
drink  them.  The  Pecos  is  a strange  compound,  and  one  of  the 
arms  of  the  Brazos  is  far  more  briny  than  the  ocean.  Yet  in  all 
this  region  there  are  springs  and  deep  circular  pits  of  pure  water. 
The  Permian,  in  Archer  and  several  other  counties,  is  heavily 
stored  with  copper. 

“In  regard  to  the  region  west  of  the  Pecos,  I have  this  prophecy 
to  place  on  record — that  the  day  will  come  when  it  will  develop 
great  mineral  wealth.  We  have  every  reason  to  think  so.  No 
intelligent  man  has  ever  penetrated  that  region  without  being 
filled  with  this  conviction,  and  the  more  intelligent  and  observing 
he  is  the  stronger  Is  this  conviction  upon  him.  There  is  hardly 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


435 


a -doubt  that  the  geological  formation  there  is  but  a continuation 
of  the  rich  mineral-bearing  system  of  Colorado,  Nevada  and 
Chihuahua.  The  rocks  appear  the  same  ; they  contain  silver,  cop- 
per and  lead.  These  rich  metalliferous  rocks  run  in  great  systems, 
and  not  in  isolated  protrusions.  Thus  we  find  gold  in  the  great 
Appalachian  system  of  mountains,  reaching  out  thousands  of  miles ; 
and  thus  we  find  gold  and  silver  in  the  great  Rocky  and  Andes 
Range,  traversing  the  length  of  two  continents.  For  this  reason 
I have  ever  entertained  a lively  hope  that  much  silver  and  gold 
will  be  found  in  the  far  isolated  group  of  Llano,  etc.  The  moun- 
tains beyond  the  Pecos  fill  every  condition  for  the  expectation 
of  great  mineral  wealth.  Here  the  systems  of  Colorado  and  the 
Sierra  Rica,  of  Mexico,  meet  and  blend.  Being  so  rich  elsewhere, 
why  should  they  not  be  even  richer  where  they  meet  and  blend? 
I have  no  question  that  they  will  eventually  prove  so,  and  that 
those  now  utterly  lonely  mountains  will  be  filled  with  great  works 
and  the  busy  camps  of  the  miners.  Silver  will  be  th^  principal 
metal,  though  copper  and  lead  will  abound.” 

Forests  and  Vegetation. — Eastern  Texas,  ‘east  of  the  Trinity 
river,  is  a region  of  abundant  timber,  and  although  the  most 
densely  populated  portion  of  the  State,  full  one-half  of  its  surface 
is  still  covered  with  forests.  There  are  two  species  of  pine,  here 
known  as  the  “ long  straw”  and  “short  straw”  pine,  both  of  large 
size  and  producing  excellent  lumber,  while  the  long  straw  yields 
a superior  quality  of  turpentine.  There  are  also  in  Eastern 
Texas  several  species  of  oak,  including  the  live-oak,  so  called,  an 
evergreen  oak  which  differs  somewhat  from  the  live-oak  of 
Florida,  and  which  is  found  all  over  the  State;  the  post-oak  and 
Blackjack  ; the  ash,  elm,  black  walnut,  butternut,  pecan,  box-elder 
and  pride  of  China ; and  toward  the  coast,  the  magnolia  (here  a 
stately  tree),  the  cypress,  palmetto,  etc.  In  Northern  Texas 
there  are  two  immense  belts  of  woodland,  extending  from  the 
Red  river  southward,  called  the  “Lower”  and  “Upper  Cross 
Timbers.”  They  are  each  about  forty  or  forty-five  miles  wide, 
and -extend  southward  from  150  to  200  miles;  the  first  com- 
mences in  Cooke  and  Grayson  counties,  along  the  Red  river, 
and  extends  to  McLennan  county ; the  second,  which  is  smaller, 


J-'0A’£S7-  GROWTHS  IN  TEXAS. 


436 

occupies  parts  of  Wise,  Jack,  Palo  Piuto,  Hood  and  Erath  coun- 
ties. Most  of  the  trees  in  these  forests  are  post-oak  and  black- 
jack oak,  and  they  stand  so  wide  apart  that  a wagon  can  be 
driven  between  them  in  any  direction. 

Central  Texas  is  mainly  rolling  prairie  ; but  with  plenty  of 
timber,  generally  of  good  quality,  though  sometimes  cottonwood, 
buckeye,  black  gum  or  sweet  gum,  in  the  river  and  creek  bottoms. 
There  are  also  islands  of  forest  trees,  live-oak,  cypress  (which 
grows  on  the  hills  here),  post-oak  and  mesquite  scattered  through 
the  prairies.  The  coast  belt  has  no  forest  trees,  but  frequent 
chapparals,  composed  mainly  of  the  different  species  of  cactus. 
This  region  has  also  in  spring  and  early  summer  rich  and  nutri- 
tious grasses,  and  a profusion  of  brilliant  flowering  plants. 
Western  and  Northwestern  Texas  are  scantily  wooded,  though 
even  there  the  cypress,  the  live-oak  (more  rarely),  and  that  won- 
derful tree,  the  mesquite,  are  found.  The  Osage  orange  (bois 
d’arc)  and  the  pecan  tree  are  among  the  other  valuable  forest 
trees  of  Texas.  The  bois  d’arc  grows  in  almost  all  soils;  its  wood 
is  very  hard  and  dufable,  and  its  thorns  and  rapid  growth  make  it 
excellent  for  hedges. 

The  other  shrubs  and  plants  most  common  in  Northwestern 
Texas  and  in  the  Llano  Estacado  are  the  yucca  and  four  or  five 
genera  of  the  cactus,  among  which  are  the  prickly  pear,  the  melo- 
cactus,  the  mammelaria  and  several  species  of  cereus.  The  sage 
brush  is  not  so  abundant,  even  on  the  Llano,  as  in  New  Mexico 
and  Colorado.  The  mesquite  grass,  a very  great  favorite  with 
cattle,  is  the  best  of  the  pasturage  grasses  of  this  region. 

Zoology. — There  are  still  some  herds  of  buffalo  and  antelope 
in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State,  though  the  number  is  di- 
minishing every  year.  In  Western  Texas  the  mustang  or  wild 
horse  of  Mexico  still  feeds  in  large  troops  on  the  prairies  ; the 
gray  wolf,  more  ferocious  and  stronger  than  his  northern  con- 
gener, the  black  bear,  the  puma  or  cougar,  the  jaguar  or  Amer- 
ican tiger,  the  wild  cat  and  the  lynx,  are  found  in  the  wooded  and 
thinly  inhabited  districts ; while  deer,  peccaries,  raccoons,  opos- 
sums, foxes,  hares  and  squirrels  abound  in  the  woods. 

Among  the  feathered  tribes  are  found : of  game  birds,  the  wild 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


437 


turkey,  pheasant,  quail,  snipe,  curlew,  many  species  of  wild  ducks, 
brant  and  teal,  wild  geese,  swans,  and  a great  variety  of  birds 
remarkable  for  sweetness  of  song  or  beauty  of  plumage;  and 
among  the  birds  of  prey,  the  king  vulture,  or  king  of  the  buz- 
zards, the  common  turkey  buzzard,  and  other  vultures,  eagles, 
hawks,  kites,  pelicans,  herons,  king-fishers,  flamingoes,  cranes, 
etc.  The  streams  abound  in  fish,  of  which  the  black  bass  and  the 
war-mouth  perch  are  the  best  edible  fresh-water  varieties,  while 
the  waters  of  the  bays  and  gulf  yield  immense  numbers  of  the 
salt-water  fish  common  to  all  the  Atlantic  and  gulf  coasts.  The 
oysters  of  Galveston  bay  and  its  vicinity  are  considered  good  by 
epicures.  Alligators,  turtles,  etc.,  are  abundant  in  the  lower 
portion  of  the  rivers  and  bayous,  and  on  the  coast  are  seen,  though 
less  frequently,  the  great  sea-turtles,  the  manatee,  octopus  and  the 
porpoise.  In  the  mountains  and  wooded  districts,  rattlesnakes, 
moccasin  snakes,  copperheads,  the  red-mouthed  adder  and  the 
milk  adder  are  sufficiently  numerous,  and  several  species  of  the 
black  snake  (our  American  boa)  and  great  numbers  of  harmless 
snakes  are  found  almost  everywhere.  The  gecko  and  other 
lizards,  among  them  the  chameleon,  horned  toads,  horned  frogs, 
salamanders,  etc.,  abound,  and  the  insect  tribes  are  both  numerous 
and  formidable.  The  centipede,  and  on  the  lower  coast  a small 
sand  scorpion,  the  large  jumping  spider,  horse  flies,  buffalo  gnats, 
chigoes  and  mosquitoes  are  all  more  or  less  troublesome;  but 
they  are  not  found  in  the  same  localities  nor  at  the  same  season 
of  the  year.  The  insects  injurious  to  vegetation  are  less  numerous 
and  destructive  than  in  any  other  States. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Texas  is  varied  from  semi-tropical  to 
moderately  temperate.  Snow  and  ice  are  seldom  seen  in  the 
central  portion,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  in  the  extreme  south.  In  the 
northern  part  one  or  two  snow-falls  during  the  winter,  of  from 
one  to  three  inches  in  depth,  are  usually  expected.  Occasionally 
a much  heavier  fall  is  had,  and  ice  from  one  to  two  inches  in 
thickness  is  sometimes  made. 

In  the  northeastern  and  eastern  sections  of  the  State  the  mer- 
cury in  summer  rarely  rises  above  loo,  and  as  rarely  descends 
to  zero.  The  summers  are  long  and  the  heat  continuous,  but 


CLIMATE  OF  TEXAS. 


438 

not  as  intense  as  in  many  localities  farther  north.  The  winters 
are  generally  mild  and  for  the  most  part  pleasant.  On  the  coast, 
even  at  Brownsville,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  the  mer- 
cury rarely  or  never  reaches  100°,  and  as  rarely  falls  below  32° 
in  winter.  The  entire  range  of  the  year  is  not  over  66°. 

Along  the  whole  course  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and,  indeed,  gener- 
ally in  Western  and  Northwestern  Texas,  the  climate  is  entirely 
different,  bearing  a greater  resemblance  to  that  of  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico.  The  summer  temperature  rises  to  110°,  112°  or 
1 16°,  and  what  is  remarkable  attains  its  greatest  intensity  in  May, 
when  it  remains  above  100°  for  fifteen  or  twenty  days  together. 
In  winter  it  falls  to  about  20°  or  25°,  the  annual  range  being  from 
91°  to  96°.  The  rainfall  varies  as  much  as  the  temperature.  In 
Galveston  it  averages  more  than  50  inches;  in  Austin,  34.55; 
in  Denison,  about  31  inches;  while  west  of  the  looth  meridian 
it  gradually  diminishes  from  21.21  at  Brackettsville  to  8.99  at  El 
Paso.  From  the  reports  of  twenty-five  stations  of  the  Signal 
Service  Office  in  Texas,  and  reports  from  two  or  three  others 
from  private  sources,  we  have  selected  eight  points,  of  which  we 
give  temperature,  rainfall,  and,  in  two  of  them,  the  barometer. 
These  eight  points  represent  as  fairly  as  possible  the  meteorology 
of  all  parts  of  the  State. 

Minmg  a7id  Mmiufacturing  Industries. — There  can  be  no 
question  that  Texas  possesses  a vast  amount  of  mineral  wealth, 
and  that  at  some  not  distant  day  the  mountain  districts  of 
Western  and  Northwestern  Texas  will  be  thoroughly  prospected, 
and  hundreds  of  mines  of  gold,  silver  and  copper  opened  and 
profitably  worked.  The  mines  of  coal,  of  rock  salt  and  of  lead, 
which  are  now  just  developing,  will  be  wrought  on  an  extensive 
scale,  and  the  soapstone,  marble,  slate  and  gypsum  will  be  largely 
exported.  The  whole  State  west  of  the  meridian  of  San  Antonio 
is  full  of  mineral  wealth.  But  at  present  there  is  a lack  of  the 
enterprise  which  is  necessary  for  the  development  of  these  trea- 
sures. 

Historical  Data. — The  following  memoranda  of  dates  and 
events  in  Texan  history  are  from  a “Chronological  Compend 


HISTORICAL  NOTES  ON  TEXAS. 


439 


of  Texas  History,”  prepared  for  “ Burke’s  Texas  Almanac  for 
1880,”  by  D.  W.  C.  Baker.  They  have  been  carefully  verified 
by  us : 

“Texas  is  supposed  to  have  its  name  from  an  Indian  village 
called  Texas  on  the  Neches  river.  Its  meaning  in  the  Indian 
language  is  friend. 

“In  1685  3-  French  cavalier  named  Robert  de  LaSalle,  with  a 
small  colony,  landed  at  Matagorda  bay  and  built  a fortress,  which 
he  called  in  honor  of  the  King  of  France,  St.  Louis.  This  colony 
was  soon  exterminated  by  disease  and  the  hostility  of  the  In- 
dians ; and  La  Salle  was  killed  by  one  of  his  own  mutinous  fol- 
lowers. 

“Spain  next  attempted  the  occupation  of  Texas,  and  in  1689  ^ 
colony  was  landed  and  a mission  was  built  near  the  spot  where 
four  years  previously  La  Salle  had  landed.  This  colony  was  soon 
broken  up  by  the  same  causes  as  the  former  one. 

“Between  the  years  1690  and  1720  the  Spanish  Roman  Catho- 
lics established  many  missions  and  fortresses  within  the  borders 
of  Texas.  Three  missions  were  built  and  occupied  by  monks 
and  friars,  and  by  soldiers  who  were  sent  to  defend  them. 

“After  many  vicissitudes  the  Spanish  missions  were  within  a 
century  from  their  establishment  one  after  another  abandoned, 
leaving  throughout  the  State  crumbling  ruins  of  massive  build- 
ings, which  to  this  day  sufficiently  attest  the  self-sacrificing  de- 
votion and  labors  of  those  Christian  ambassadors  from  the  Old 
World. 

“The  fate  of  the  inmates  of  the  mission  of  San  Saba  was  one 
of  the  most  deplorable  recorded  in  history.  This  mission  was 
established  in  1734,  and  for  a while  the  Indians  proved  friendly. 
In  1752  a silver  mine  was  discovered  there,  which  drew  to  the 
place  a number  of  adventurers.  Trouble  soon  arose  between 
these  and  the  savages,  who  in  their  rage  made  an  onslaught  on 
the  fortress,  and  slew  all  who  were  there,  not  one  escaping. 

“Thus  the  efforts  of  France  and  Spain  to  effect  a permanent 
occupation  of  Texas  failed. 

“France  formally  abandoned  her  claims  in  1763,  and  in  1821 
Mexico  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and  Spain  thereafter  ceased 


440 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


to  press  her  claims  for  it.  Texas  thus  became  a province  of 
Mexico  in  1821.  At  that  time,  despite  the  blood  and  treasure 
which  had  been  expended  by  the  governments  of  the  old  world 
to  hold  Texas,  nothing  had  been  accomplished.  It  was  practically 
as  much  a wilderness  in  1821  as  when  La  Salle  set  foot  upon  its 
shores  in  1685,  ^he  white  population  being  only  3,000  in  the  whole 
Territory. 

“ But  the  time  had  now  come  when  the  Anglo-American  turned 
his  steps  hither,  and  history  has  yet  to  record  where  he  has  ever 
failed  of  his  undertaking.  The  permanent  colonization  of  Texas 
by  citizens  of  the  United  States  began  in  1821. 

“In  1821-22  Stephen  F.  Austin,  to  whom  justly  belongs  the 
title.  Father  of  Texas,  introduced  a large  number  of  colonists,  and 
furnished  them  homes.  After  devoting  the  best  years  of  his  life 
to  the  accomplishment  of  his  darling  enterprise  of  establishing 
permanent  and  prosperous  colonies  in  Texas ; after  undergoing 
hardships  and  braving  dangers  such  as  few  men  have  ever  ex- 
perienced, he  was  stricken  down  with  disease  at  Columbia, 
Brazoria  county,  and  there  died,  December  25th,  1836,  in  the 
forty-fifth  year  of  his  age.  From  the  advent  of  Austin  until  1830 
the  American  population  of  Texas  continued  rapidly  to  increase, 
and  at  that  time  numbered  about  20,000. 

“ Then  the  government  of  Mexico  became  alarmed  at  the  rapidly 
increasing  strength  and  influence  of  the  young  colony,  and  took 
steps  to  prevent  its  further  growth.  The  Dictator  of  Mexico, 
Bustamente,  issued  a decree  suspending  all  existing  colony  con- 
tracts, and  forbidding  under  severe  penalty  any  citizen  of  the 
United  States  from  settling  in  Texas.  This  measure  did  not 
have  the  desired  effect,  and  the  tide  of  immigration  continued  to 
pour  into  the  country. 

“In  1833  the  citizens  of  Texas,  in  the  proper  exercise  of  their 
rights  as  freemen,  called  a council  at  San  Felipe.  Of  this  council 
W.  H.  Wharton  was  president.  A memorial  and  petition  was 
prepared,  setting  forth  in  calm  and  forcible  language  the  wants 
and  grievances  of  the  colonists,  and  praying  the  central  power 
at  Mexico  for  a separate  State  organization.  This  memorial  was 
sent  to  Mexico  by  the  hands  of  Stephen  F.  Austin.  No  definite 


THE  TEXAN  IVAE  OF  INDEPENDENCE.  ' 441 

response  was  given  to  this  petition,  and  Austin  was  thrown  into 
prison,  where  he  remained  many  months.  Thus  matters  re- 
mained until  1835,  when  the  colonists  becoming  fully  satisfied 
that  prompt  action  could  alone  protect  their  interests,  held 
primary  meetings  and  took  steps  to  secure  a separate  govern- 
ment. Santa  Anna,  the  Dictator,  at  once  sent  large  bodies  of 
soldiers  to  quell  the  revolutionary  spirit  which  now  showed 
itself. 

“ On  the  2d  of  October  the  opening  battle  of  the  Texas  revolu- 
tion was  fought  at  Gonzales. 

“On  the  8th  day  of  .October,  1835,  a force  of  Texans  under  Cap- 
tain Collingsworth,  attacked  and  captured  the  fort  at  Goliad. 
On  the  morning  of  the  28th  of  October  a detachment  of  Texans 
under  Captains  Fannin  and  Bowie,  who  were  encamped  on  the 
bank  of  the  San  Antonio  river  near  the  Mission  of  Conception, 
was  surrounded  and  attacked  by  a large  body  of  Mexicans.  A 
short  but  decisive  action  followed,  in  which  the  Mexicans  were 
completely  routed,  and  fled,  leaving  one  hundred  dead  upon  the 
field. 

“ On  the  3d  day  of  November,  1 835,  a general  consultation,  con- 
sisting of  delegates  of  the  colonists,  assembled  at  San  Felipe  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  a provisional  government.  This  con- 
sultation elected  Henry  Smith  Provisional  Governor  of  Texas, 
and  adopted  a declaration  setting  forth  that  Texas  no  longer 
owed  allegiance  to  the  nominal  Mexican  Republic. 

“On  the  26th  day  of  November,  1835,  a skirmish  took  place 
near  San  Antonio,  called  the  grass  fight,  in  which  the  Mexicans 
were  driven  to  their  entrenchments  with  a loss  of  fifty  men. 

“On  the  5th  day  of  December,  1835,  the  forces  of  the  colonists 
in  two  divisions,  under  command  of  Col.  J.  W.  Johnson  and  Col. 
Benj.  R.  Milam,  made  a series  of  determined  assaults  upon  the 
city  of  San  Antonio,  which  was  occupied  by  a large  force  of  the 
enemy.  After  a number  of  sanguinary  battles,  in  which  great 
valor  was  displayed  on  both  sides,  the  Texan  forces  obtained 
complete  possession  of  the  city  on  the  loth  of  December,  and 
General  Cos,  with  eleven  hundred  soldiers  surrendered.  In  this 
affair  the  heroic  Milam  was  slain.  This  decisive  conquest  had 
the  effect  of  exciting  much  enthusiasm  among  the  colonists. 


442 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE, 


“Santa  Anna  now  determined  to  crush  out  the  rebellion  in 
Texas  by  one  decisive  campaign,  and  in  January,  1836,  he 
equipped  an  army  of  7,500  picked  men,  and  placing  himself  at 
their  head  he  marched  into  Texas. 

“The  fortress  of  the  Alamo  was  then  garrisoned  by  a force  of 
170  men,  commanded  by  Col.  W.  B.  Travis.  They  were  soon 
surrounded  by  the  whole  Mexican  army  and  summoned  to  sur- 
render. This  being  refused,  a furious  bombardment  was  com- 
menced, which  was  continued  from  the  25th  of  February  until 
the  6th  day  of  March,  1836.  On  the  morning  of  the  last  named 
day  the  besiegers  made  a desperate  assault  upon  the  garrison. 
The  particulars  of  that  struggle  can  never  be  known.  Enough 
to  say  the  heroic  band,  exhausted  by  incessant  toil,  watchfulness 
and  privation,  were  at  length  destroyed.  Of  the  whole  number 
within  the  walls  of  the  fort  only  two  escaped,  a woman  and  a 
child.  This  victory  cost  Santa  Anna  1,500  of  his  best  soldiers. 
Close  upon  the  heels  of  the  dreadful  massacre  at  the  Alamo 
came  another  equally  appalling. 

“ Col.  J.  W.  Fannin,  who  was  stationed  at  Goliad  with  a garrison 
of  500  men,  was,  on  the  19th  day  of  March,  1836,  surrounded  by 
a vastly  superior  force  of  the  enemy.  Notwithstanding  the 
Texans  were  almost  entirely  destitute  of  supplies  and  ammuni- 
tion, a desperate  battle  was  fought,  in  which  after  inflicting  a loss 
of  300  men  upon  the  enemy.  Col.  Fannin  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render, on  promise  of  honorable  treatment.  The  forces  thus 
capitulated  were,  in  violation  of  the  terms  of  surrender,  marched 
out  and  inhumanly  shot  on  the  27th  day  of  March,  1836. 

“ General  Sam  Houston,  who  had  been  appointed  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  Texan  army,  now  fell  back  before  the  invader,  in 
order  to  draw  him  as  far  as  possible  from  his  base  of  supplies,  as 
well  as  to  recruit  his  little  army.  He  continued  his  retreat  until, 
on  the  20th  day  of  April,  he  formed-  his  troops  in  line  of  battle  on 
the  banks  of  the  San  Jacinto  river. 

“The  Mexican  commander  eagerly  followed,  and  on  the  21st 
day  of  April,  1836,  was  fought  the  memorable  battle  of  San 
Jacinto.  This  decisive  encounter  resulted  in  the  total  rout  of 
the  Mexican  army  and  the  capture  of  Santa  Anna,  and  secured 
the  independence  of  Texas. 


THE  REPUBLIC  OE  TEXAS. 


443 

“ On  the  2d  day  of  March,  1836,  a convention  of  the  people  of 
Texas  at  Washington,  on  the  Brazos,  adopted  a declaration  of 
independence  and  established  a government  ad  inte7dmy  by  elect- 
inor  David  G.  Burnet  President. 

“The  population  of  Texas  now  increased  rapidly. 

“ The  first  newspaper  in  Texas  was  established  in  San  Felipe 
in  October,  1835,  by  Joseph  Baker  and  Gail  and  Thomas  H. 
Borden. 

“September,  1836.  General  Sam  Houston  and  M.  B.  Lamar 
elected  first  constitutional  President  and  Vice-President  of  the 
Republic. 

“October,  1836.  First  Congress  met  at  Columbia.  By  this 
body  wise  laws  were  enacted,  an  able  judiciary  established,  the 
army  organized,  and  the  people  put  in  possession  of  their  civil 
and  political  rights. 

“March,  1839.  The  Congress  of  the  United  States  acknowl- 
edged the  independence  of  Texas. 

“October,  1839.  Seat  of  government  established  at  the  new 
city  of  Austin.  It  had  previously  been  first  at  San  Felipe,  next 
at  Washington,  next  at  Harrisburg,  next  at  Galveston,  next  at 
Velasco,  next  at  Columbia,  next  at  Houston.  In  1842  a Mexican 
invasion  into  Western  Texas  induced  General  Houston  to  order 
the  removal  of  the  government  offices  to  Houston,  where  they 
remained  until  November  of  that  year,  when  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  removed  to  Washington.  In  1850,  and  again  in  1870, 
elections  were  held  by  which  the  capital  of  Texas  was  perma- 
nently fixed  at  Austin,  where  it  now  is. 

“In  September,  1838,  M.  B.  Lamar  and  David  G.  Burnet  were 
elected  President  and  Vice-President.  In  1837,  the  independence 
of  Texas  was  acknowledged  by  France,  and  in  1840  by  England, 
Holland  and  Belgium.  September,  1841,  General  Houston  and 
Edward  Burleson  were  elected  President  and  Vice-President. 
September,  1844,  Anson  Jones  was  elected  President,  and  K.  L. 
Anderson,  Vice-President. 

“In  February,  1845,  Texas  was  annexed  to  the  United  States. 

“July,  1845,  b^st  State  Convention  met  at  Austin. 

“November,  1845,  Constitution  adopted. 


444 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


“From  1853  to  1856,  public  buildings  were  erected  at  Austin, 
the  debt  of  the  Republic  cancelled,  the  Asylum  founded,  criminal 
code  adopted,  permanent  school  fund  set  apart,  and  aid  given  to 
railroads. 

“In  1859,  General  Sam  Houston  and  Edward  Clark  were 
elected  Governor  and  Lieutenant-Governor. 

“February,  1861,  the  ordinance  of  secession  was  passed  by 
Texas  Convention. 

“March  i8th,  1861,  General  Houston  retired  from  office  to  his 
home  in  Huntsville,  where  he  died,  July,  1863. 

“August,  1861,  F.  R.  Lubbock  and  John  M.  Crockett  were 
elected  Governor  and  Lieutenant-Governor. 

“October,  1862,  Galveston  captured  by  Federal  troops. 

“January,  1863,  Galveston  retaken  by  Confederate  forces. 

“August,  1863,  Pendleton  Murrah  and  F.  S.  Stockdale  were 
elected  Governor  and  Lieutenant-Governor. 

“In  1865,  A.  J.  Hamilton  was  appointed  by  the  President,  pro- 
visional Governor  of  Texas. 

“June  19th,  1865,  General  Granger  issued  a general  order 
proclaiming  freedom  of  slaves  in  Texas. 

“February  loth,  1866,  first  reconstruction  convention  assem- 
bled at  Austin,  and  framed  constitution. 

“July,  1866,  J.  W.  Throckmorton  and  G.  W.  Jones  were 
elected  Governor  and  Lieutenant-Governor. 

“ March,  1867,  Texas  again  under  military  rule. 

“August,  1867,  E.  M.  Pease  appointed  provisional  Governor. 

“June,  1868,  second  reconstruction  convention  met  at  Austin 
and  framed  constitution. 

“November,  1869,  E.  J.  Davis  and  J.  W.  Flannagan  were 
elected  Governor  and  Lieutenant-Governor. 

“In  1870,  Senators  and  Representatives  from  Texas  again 
admitted  into  Congress. 

“December,  1873,  Richard  Coke  and  R.  B.  Hubbard  were 
elected  Governor  and  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Texas,  and  they 
were  re-elected  to  these  positions  in  February,  1876. 

“ The  present  State  Constitution  was  framed  by  a Convention 
which  assembled  at  Austin,  September  6th,  1875.  Governor  Coke, 


ADVANTAGES  OF  SETTLEMENT  IN  TEXAS. 


445 

having  been  elected  United  States  Senator,  resigned  the  office 
of  Governor,  and  R.  B.  Hubbard  became  Governor  of  Texas, 
December  ist,  1876. 

“November,  1878,  O.  M.  Roberts  and  J.  D.  Sayers  were 
elected  Governor  and  Lieutenant-Governor,  which  positions  they 
now  hold. 

“At  the  first  election  for  President  of  Texas  in  1836  the  whole 
vote  cast  was  only  5,704;  in  1838  the  vote  was  7,247  ; in  1840 
it  was  11,531  ; in  1844  it  was  12,752;  in  1845  vote  for  Gov- 
ernor was  only  9,578,  because  many  neglected  to  attend  the  polls; 
in  1847  it  was  14,476;  in  1849  it  was  21,715;  in  1851  it  was 
28,309;  in  1853  it  was  36,152;  in  1855  it  was  45G39  ; in  1857 
it  was  56,180;  in  1859  it  was  64,627;  in  1861  it  dropped  to 
57,443  on  account  of  the  neglect  of  people  to  vote,  while  in  1863, 
when  most  of  the  voters  were  in  the  Confederate  army,  it  was 
only  31,037.  In  1866  it  rose  to  60,682  ; in  1869  it  was  79,373  ; 
in  1873  it  was  128,361  ; in  1876  it  was  198,137  ; in  1878  it  was 
236,917  ; in  1880  the  vote  for  President  was  237,337.” 

Conclusion. — Land  is  so  cheap  in  Texas,  and  some  of  it  so 
good,  the  facilities  for  stock-raising,  as  well  as  for  farming,  are  so 
desirable,  the  climate  so  mild  and  healthful,  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  State  is  now,  or  soon  will  be,  so  accessible  by  steamers  and 
railroads,  that  it  presents  great  advantages  to  immigrants. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

UTAH  TERRITORY. 

Utah  is  a peculiar  Territory ; peculiar  in  its  situation,  half 
in  the  Great  Salt  Lake  basin,  and  half  in  the  equally  wild  and 
deeply  grooved  basin  of  the  Colorado  river;  singular  in  its  geol- 
ogy, its  minerals,  its  salt  and  fresh  water  lakes  and  rivers,  with 
no  outlet  beyond  its  walls  of  rock;  peculiar  in  its  deposits  of  the 
precious  metals  and  coal;  peculiar  in  its  deserts,  and  still  more 
peculiar  in  the  character,  religious,  political,  and  social,  of  the 
majority  of  its  inhabitants. 

It  is  one  of  the  central  Territories  of  the  middle  belt  of  States 


FORESTS  AND  VEGETATION. 


446 

and  Territories  of  “Our  Western  Empire.”  It  is  bounded  wholly 
by  mathematico-geographical  lines,  lying  between  the  parallels 
of  37°  and  42°  north  latitude,  and  109°  and  114°  west  longitude 
from  Greenwich.  Its  northern  boundaries  are  Idaho  and  Wyom- 
ing; its  eastern,  Wyoming  and  Colorado;  its  southern,  Arizona, 
and  its  western,  Nevada.  It  is  not  quite  a square,  a tract  which 
extends  from  the  41st  to  the  42d  parallel  and  from  the  iiith  to 
the  114th  meridian  being  added  to  it  on  the  north  to  include 
Great  Salt  lake.  Bear  lake,  etc.,  and  to  make  a part  of  its 
northern  boundary  coterminous  with  that  of  Idaho  and  Nevada. 
It  has  a maximum  length  of  325  miles  by  a breadth  of  300  ; area 
84,476  square  miles,  or  54,064,640  acres. 

Foj^ests  and  Vegetation. — On  the  mountains  and  along  the 
water-courses  are  found  the  following  trees,  shrubs  and  vines,  to 
wit : cottonwood,  dwarf  birch,  willow,  quaking  aspen,  mountain 
maple,  box-elder,  scrub  cedar,  scrub  oak,  mountain  oak,  white, 
red,  yellow  and  pinon  pine,  white  spruce,  balsam-fir,  mountain 
mahogany,  common  elder,  dwarf  hawthorn,  sumac,  wild  hop,  wild 
rose,  dwarf  sunflower,  and  of  edible  berries,  service  berry,  bull- 
berry,  wild  cherry,  wild  currant,  etc.  Most  of  the  plants  belong 
to  the  conipositecE,  crucifei^cB,  legtcminosce,  boi^agmacecTy  or  rosa- 
ce cb. 

Altitude  of  Momitains  and  Valleys. — It  is  intersected  from  north 
to  south  by  the  Wahsatch  mountains,  dividing  it  nearly  equally 
between  the  Great  Basin  and  the  basin  of  the  Rio  Colorado. 
The  altitude  of  the  surface  on  both  sides  of  this  mountain  range 
is  about  the  same,  the  valleys  4,000  to  6,000  feet  above  sea- 
level;  the  mountains,  6,000  to  13,000.  West  of  the  Wahsatch, 
the  drainage  is  into  lakes  and  sinks  which  have  no  outlet,  the 
largest  of  which  is  Great  Salt  lake,  with  an  elevation  of  4,260 
feet,  a shore  line  of  350  miles,  and  an  area  of  3,000  to  4,000 
square  miles.  It  receives  the  Bear  and  Weber,  and  many 
smaller  streams,  and,  also,  the  discharge  from  Utah  lake 
through  the  River  Jordan.  The  latter  is  fresh  water,  about  ten 
by  thirty  miles  in  extent,  the  receptacle  of  American,  Provo,  and 
Spanish  rivers.  There  are  numerous  valleys,  the  lowest  of  them 
higher  than  the  average  summit  of  the  Alleghanies.  Following 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  447 

are  the  ascertained  altitudes  of  representative  lakes,  rivers, 
springs,  valleys,  and  towns,  namely: 


Great  Salt  Lake 4,260 

Utah  Lake 

Sevier  Lake 4,600 

Little  Salt  Lake,  Paragoonah 6,220 

Bear  Lake,  Laketown 6,000 

Bear  River,  Randolph 6,440 

Bear  River,  Hampton’s  Bridge,..  4,540 

Weber  River,  Kamas 6,300 

Weber  River,  Ogden 4>30o 

Provo  River,  Heber 5>574 

Provo  River,  Provo 4>520 

San  Pitch  River,  Mt.  Pleasant 6,090 

San  Pitch  River,  Gunnison 5^44 

Sevier  River,  Pangnitch 6,270 

Sevier  River,  Bridge 4>765 

Cache  Valley,  Logan 4>550 

Salt  Lake  City,  Signal  Office 4.350 

Fort  Douglas,  Near  Salt  Lake  City,  4,800 

Bush  Valley,  Tooele  County 5,200 


Skull  Valley,  Tooele  County 4,850 

Deep  Creek,  Tooele  County,  . . 5,230 

Nephi,  Juab  County 4,927 

Fillmore,  Millard  County....  6,024 

Antelope  Springs,  Millard  County.  ..  5,850 

Beaver,  Beaver  County 6,050 

Fort  Cameron,  Beaver  County,.  . . . 6,100 

Wah  Wah  Springs,  Beaver  County 5,45^ 

Buckhorn  Springs,  Iron  County 5,690 

Desert  Springs,  Iron  County 5,880 

Iron  City,  Iron  County 6,100 

Cedar  City,  Iron  County 5,726 

St,  George,  Washington  County.  2,900 

Diamond,  Tintic  Mines 6,370 

Strawberry  Valley,  Wahsatch  County..  7,716 
Rabbit  Valley,  Sevier  County.  ,. ...  6,820 

Kanab,  Kane  County 4,900 

Paria,  Kane  County 4,562 

Kanarra,  Rim  of  Basin 5,420 


Zoology. — Among  the  animals  are  the  coyote,  gray  wolf,  wol- 
verine, mountain  sheep,  buffalo  (now  extinct  in  Utah),  antelope, 
elk,  moose;  black-tailed,  white-tailed,  and  mule  deer;  grizzly, 
black,  and  cinnamon  bear ; civet  cat,  striped  squirrel,  gopher, 
prairie-dog,  beaver,  porcupine,  badger,  skunk,  wild  cat,  lynx,  sage 
and  jack-rabbit  and  cottontail.  Birds ; golden  and  bald  eagle 
and  osprey;  horned,  screech  and  burrowing  owl;  duck;  pig- 
eon ; sparrow,  sharp  shinned  and  gos-hawk  : woodpecker,  raven, 
yellow-billed  magpie,  jay,  blackbird,  ground  robin,  song  sparrow; 
purple,  grass  and  Cambell’s  finch  ; fly-catcher,  wren,  water  ouzel, 
sky  lark,  English  snipe,  winter  yellow-legs,  spotted  sand  piper, 
great  blue  heron,  bittern,  stork,  swan,  pelican,  Peale’s  egret, 
ground  dove,  red  shafted  flicker,  mallard  and  green-winged  teal, 
goose,  ptarmigan,  humming  bird,  mountain  quail,  sage  cock  and 
pine  hen.  Reptiles  : Rattle-snake,  water-snake,  harlequin-snake, 
and  lizards.  The  tarantula  and  scorpion  are  found,  but  are  not 
common. 

Geology. — The  greater  part  of  the  rock  of  the  interior  moun- 
tain area  is  a series  of  conformable  stratified  beds,*  reaching 


* Clarence  King’s  Explanations  40th  parallel. 


GEOLOGY  OF  UTAH. 


448 

from  the  early  Azoic  to  the  late  Jurassic.  In  the  latter  these 
beds  were  raised,  and  the  Sierras,  the  Wahsatch,  and  the  par- 
allel ranges  of  the  Great  Basin  were  the  consequence.  In  this 
upheaval  important  masses  of  granite  broke  through,  accompanied 
by  quartz,  porphyries,  felsite  rocks,  and  notably  sienitic  granite, 
with  some  granulite  andgretsen  occasionally.  Then,  the  Pacific 
Ocean  on  the  west,  and  the  ocean  that  filled  the  Mississippi 
Basin  on  the  east,  laid  down  a system  of  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary 
strata.  These  outlying  shore  beds,  subsequently  to  the  Miocene, 
were  themselves  raised  and  folded,  forming  the  Pacific  Coast 
Range  and  the  chains  east  of  the  Wahsatch;  volcanic  rocks  ac- 
companying this  upheaval  as  granite  did  the  former  one.  Still 
later  a final  series  of  disturbances  occurred,  but  these  last  had 
but  small  connection  with  the  region  under  consideration. 

There  is  a general  parallelism  of  the  mountain  chains,  and  all 
the  structural  features  of  local  geology,  the  ranges,  strike  of 
great  areas  of  upturned  strata,  larger  outbursts  of  gigantic  rocks, 
etc.,  are  nearly  parallel  with  the  meridian.  So  the  precious 
metals  arrange  themselves  in  parallel  longitudinal  zones.  There 
is  a zone  of  quicksilver,  tin,  and  chromic  iron  on  the  coast  ranges  ; 
one  of  copper  along  the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierras ; one  of  gold 
farther  up  the  Sierras,  the  gold  veins  and  resultant  placers  ex- 
tending far  into  Alaska ; one  of  silver,  with  comparatively  little 
base  metal,  along  the  east  base  of  the  Sierras,  stretching  into 
Mexico ; silver  mines  with  complicated  associations  through 
Middle  Mexico,  Arizona,  Middle  Nevada,  and  Central  Idaho;  ar- 
gentiferous galena  through  New  Mexico,  Utah,  and  Western 
Montana;  and,  still  farther  east,  a continuous  chain  of  gold  de- 
posits in  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  Wyoming  and  Montana.  The 
Jurassic  disturbances  in  all  probability  are  the  dating  point  of 
a large  class  of  lodes  : a,  those  wholly  enclosed  in  the  granites, 
and  b,  those  in  metamorphic  beds  of  the  series  extending  from 
the  Azoic  to  the  Jurassic.  To  this  period  may  be  referred  the 
gold  veins  of  California,  those  of  the  Humboldt  mines,  and  those 
of  White  Pine,  all  of  class  b;  and  the  Reese  river  veins,  partly  a, 
and  partly  b.  dlie  Colorado  lodes  are  somewhat  unique,  and  in 
general  belong  to  the  ancient  type.  To  the  1 ertiary  period 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


449 

may  be  definitely  assigned  the  mineral  veins  traversing  the  early 
volcanic  rock ; as  the  Comstock  Lode  and  veins  of  the  Owyhee 
District,  Idaho.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  metalliferous 
lodes  occur  in  the  stratified  metamorphic  rocks  or  the  ancient 
eruptive  rocks  of  the  Jurassic  upheaval ; yet  very  important, 
and,  perhaps,  more  wonderfully  productive,  have  been  those 
silver  lodes  which  lie  wholly  in  the  recent  volcanic  formations. 

Mineralogy. — Utah  is  probably  the  richest  Territory  in  “Our 
Western  Empire”  in  its  deposits  of  gold  and  silver,  though 
Arizona,  Colorado,  Montana,  Nevada  and  California  might  be 
inclined  to  dispute  the  justice  of  her  claim.  The  region  south 
of  Great  Salt  Lake,  between  the  Jordan  river  and  the  Oquirrh 
Mountains,  and  the  whole  of  the  Oquirrh  range  on  both  sides,  is 
full  of  gold  and  silver  veins.  Next  south  of  these  comes  the  Tintic 
Silver  district,  and  as  we  proceed  south,  still  in  the  Great  Salt 
Lake  Basin,  the  whole  region  from  Sevier  lake  to  the  Arizona  line 
abounds  in  lodes  of  silver,  gold  and  copper,  with  occasional  beds 
of  coal,  iron  and  alum.  On  the  western  slope  of  the  Wahsatch 
Mountains,  which  forms  the  eastern  wall  of  the  basin,  there  are 
numerous  silver  mines,  and  they  extend  also  east  of  the  Wahsatch, 
especially  along  the  line  of  the  Uintah  Mountains.  But  those 
counties  in  the  Colorado  Basin  are  especially  rich  in  coal,  much 
of  it  adapted  to  smelting  purposes.  There  are  twelve  counties 
in  which  extensive  coal  lands  have  been  found.  The  iron  deposits 
of  all  varieties  are  of  enormous  extent  in  every  part  of  the  Terri- 
tory. Utah  could  produce  all  the  iron  and  steel  needed  in  the 
United  States  more  cheaply  than  any  other  section.  Sulphur 
exists  in  immense  beds.  Salt  abounds  everywhere.  Other 
minerals  are  copper,  lead,  manganese,  antimony,  chrome,  red 
and  white  ochre,  jet,  asphalt,  mineral  wax  and  mineral  waters. 
The  mines  of  antimony  in  Southern  Utah  are  said  by  Professor 
Newberry  to  be  richer  and  more  easily  worked  than  any  other 
in  America. 

Topography,  Ge^teral  Features. — The  settled  part  of  Utah  lies 
along  the  western  base  of  the  Wahsatch  Mountains,  which  run 
through  the  heart  of  the  Territory  from  north  to  south,  reaching 
their  greatest  altitude  near  Salt  Lake  City  (where  they  abut  on 


45o  topography— genei^al  features. 

the  Uintah  Range  coming  from  the  east,  forming  the  cross-bar 
of  a T),  and  almost  losing  themselves  in  the  sandstone  plateau 
of  the  Rio  Colorado  in  the  south.  Abreast  of  Salt  Lake  City 
the  Wahsatch  Range  is  10,000  to  12,000  feet  in  altitude.  Here, 
within  a small  area,  rise  the  Bear  and  Weber  rivers,  which  empty 
into  Salt  lake  ; the  Provo,  which  empties  into  Utah  lake;  and 
some  of  the  main  affluents  of  the  Green  river,  which,  with  the 
Grand,  become  the  Rio  Colorado,  lower  down.  It  is  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  heads  of  these  rivers  that  the  Emma,  the  Flagstaff, 
the  Vallejo,  the  Ontario,  McHenry  and  various  other  well-known 
mines  are  situated.  Nearly  one-half  of  the  Territory  lies  south 
of  the  Uintah  Range,  and  east  of  the  Wahsatch  Range  proper, 
and  is  drained  by  the  Green  and  Colorado  rivers  and  their 
tributaries.  Its  general  altitude  along  these  streams  is  between 
4,000  and  5,000  feet ; it  is  much  broken  by  mountains,  and  is  but 
partially  explored  and  not  settled  at  all.  It  contains  many  thou- 
sand square  miles  of  fine  grazing  country,  above  the  Grand  canon, 
with  more  or  less  arable  land,  and  no  one  yet  knows  what  min- 
eral treasures.  It  is  believed  that  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande 
Railroad,  after  being  drawn  to  the  head  of  the  Arkansas  river 
by  the  mineral  attractions  of  Leadville,  will  find  an  easy  way 
through  this  region,  entering  the  Great  Basin  via  some  of  the 
feasible  railroad  passes  of  the  Wahsatch.  A wide  strip  of  the 
western  part  of  the  Territory  is  lake,  sink,  mountain  or  desert. 
The  inhabited  part  is  chiefly  a narrow  belt,  watered  by  the 
streams  of  the  western  slope  of  the  Wahsatch  Range,  which  lose 
themselves  in  inland  lakes  or  basins.  The  largest  and  best  known 
of  these  is  the  Great  Salt  Lake  Basin. 

Great  Salt  Lake  Basm. — Including  the  valley  of  Bear  river  up 
to  the  Gates  on  the  north,  the  Utah  Basin,  on  the  south,  whose 
waters  are  discharged  into  Great  Salt  lake,  through  Jordan 
river,  it  is  200  miles  in  length  by  forty  or  fifty  in  width.  The 
principal  streams  which  are  lost  in  Great  Salt  lake  are  the  Malad 
and  Bear,  the  latter  300  miles  long,  on  the  north ; Box  Elder 
and  Willow  creeks,  Ogden  and  Weber  rivers  on  the  east;  and 
City,  Mill  and  the  Cottonwood  creeks  and  the  river  Jordan  on 
the  south.  Into  Utah  lake  flow  the  American,  Provo  and  Spanish 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  ^5  I 

forks,  though  they  are  not  forks  but  independent  mountain 
streams,  and  Salt  creek.  All  of  them-but  the  Malad  have  their 
sources  in  the  Wahsatch  Range,  which  collects  the  snows  in 
winter  that  give  them  life  and  being.  Where  they  emerge  from 
their  canons,  settlements  have  been  made  on  them,  and  their 
waters  appropriated,  so  far  as  it  can  be  cheaply  done,  for  the 
purposes  of  irrigation,  and  in  some  cases,  of  furnishing  power 
for  mills.  Of  these  settlements,  the  largest  is  Salt  Lake  City, 
located  about  centrally  as  regards  the  length  of  the  entire  basin, 
at  the  base  of  the  Wahsatch  Range,  ten  or  twelve  miles  from  the 
southeast  shore  of  Salt  lake,  containing  a population,  June,  1880, 
of  20,768.  The  city  is  supplied  with  water  by  City  creek.  It  is 
laid  out  with  broad  streets  and  sidewalks,  and  is  built  up  more 
or  less  for  two  miles  square,  shade  and  fruit  trees  largely  hiding 
the  buildings  in  the  summer  season.  It  has  ample  hotel  accom- 
modations, gas,  water  and  street  cars;  is  peaceful  and  orderly; 
is  connected  with  the  outside  world  and  adjacent  points  of  inter- 
est or  business  by  rail.  Enjoying  the  most  healthy  and  agree- 
able climate  of  perhaps  any  large  town  in  the  United  States,  with 
street  cars  running  to  the  famous  Warm  Springs,  and  the  bath- 
ing shores  of  Salt  lake  but  a half-hour’s  ride  on  the  rail  distant; 
with  the  peaks  of  the  Wahsatch,  the  Oquirrh,  and  other  ranges 
ruffling  the  clouds  at  every  point  of  the  horizon  ; with  picturesque 
mountain  canons  threaded  by  trout  streams  accessible  by  rail,  it 
is  one  of  the  most  attractive  places  of  summer  resort  for  tourists 
seeking  health  or  pleasure  in  all  the  world.  The  eastern  edge 
of  Salt  Lake  Basin  is  dotted  with  settlements,  and  is  highly  culti- 
vated wherever  water  can  be  got  on  the  ground.  There  are  the 
North  String,  Bear  River  City,  Corinne,  Brigham  City,  Willard, 
North  Ogden,  Ogden,  Kaysville,  Farmington,  Centerville,  Bounti- 
ful, Salt  Lake  City,  the  Cottonwoods,  Sandy,  West  Jordan,  Dewey- 
ville,  Lehi,  American  Fork,  Pleasant  Grove,  Provo,  Springville, 
Spanish  Fork,  Salem,  Payson,  Santaquin,  Mona,  Nephi  and  Levan. 
Ogden,  at  the  intersection  of  the  east  and  west  and  north  and 
south  railroads,  is  the  town  next  in  importance  to  Salt  Lake  City, 
the  capital.  It  is  in  the  forks  of  Ogden  and  Weber  rivers,  is 
within  a short  drive  of  fine  fishing  and  mountain  scenery,  and  is 


452  CACHE,  SAN  PETE  AND  SEVIER  VALLEYS. 

rapidly  improving.  The  Salt  Lake  Basin  at  large  has  an  altitude 
of  about  4,500  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  the  paradise  of  the 
farmer,  the  horticulturist,  and  the  grower  of  fruit.  Cut  off  from 
it  by  a low  range,  now  surmounted  by  the  Utah  and  Northern 
Railway,  toward  the  northeast,  is  Cache  Valley. 

Cache,  San  Pete  and  Sevier  Valleys. — Cache  Valley  is  oval  in 
shape,  and  perhaps  ten  by  fifty  miles  in  extent,  watered  by  Logan 
and  Blacksmith  forks  of  Bear  river,  and  by  the  latter  itself,  and 
sustaining  a settlement  wherever  a stream  breaks  out  of  the  en- 
closing mountains.  Logan  is  the  principal  town  of  Cache  Valley, 
and  thence  one  drives  eastward  through  Logan  Canon  forty  or 
fifty  miles  to  Bear  Lake  Valley,  Bear  river  here  flowing  toward 
the  north.  Farther  on  it  bends  to  the  west  and  southward,  and 
down  through  Cache  Valley,  finds  its  way  to  Salt  Lake.  Cache 
and  Bear  Lake  Valleys  have  a score  of  towns  and  15,000  inhab- 
itants. To  the  southeast  of  Salt  Lake  Basin,  and  to  be  connected 
with  it  by  rail  through  Salt  Creek  or  Nephi  Canon,  this  season, 
lies  San  Pete  Valley,  called  the  granary  of  Utah,  surrounded  by 
mountains,  except  on  the  south,  where  the  San  Pitch  river  breaks 
through  into  the  Sevier,  and  sustaining  eight  thriving  towns,  all 
still  in  their  infancy,  though  founded  several  years  ago.  San  Pete 
and  Cache  Valleys  are  fine  grain-growing  sections,  but  having 
colder  winters  are  not  so  well  adapted  to  fruit-raising  as  the  Salt 
Lake  Basin.  Next  southward  is  the  Sevier  river,  which  has  its 
source  in  Fish  (Indian,  Panguitch)  lake,  near  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  the  Territory,  and  runs,  like  Bear  river,  a long  way  north 
before  it  finds  a way  out  of  the  mountains,  and  turning  to  the^ 
southwest  is  finally  lost  in  Sevier  lake.  Most  of  the  streams  in 
the  southwest  lose  themselves  in  small  lakes  or  sinks,  that  is, 
such  as  rise  to  the  northward  of  the  divide  between  the  Great 
Basin  and  the  Rio  Colorado  country.  The  Sevier  River  Valley 
is  occupied,  like  all  the  other  Utah  valleys  (and  there  are  many  in 
the  recesses  of  the  Wahsatch,  and  some  outlying  and  disconnected 
with  that  range,  although  of  minor  importance,  which  have  not 
been  particularly  noticed),  where  a stream  breaks  out  of  the 
adjoining  mountains,  by  a settlement;  but,  like  the  other  streams, 
the  full  capacity  of  the  Sevier  river  for  irrigation  has  not  been 
called  into  requisition. 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


4^3 

The  western  third  of  the  Territory  from  end  to  end  is  an  alter- 
nation of  mountain,  desert,  sink  and  lake,  with  a few  oases  of 
arable  or  grazing  lands.  Great  Salt  lake  covers  an  area  of  3,000 
to  4,000  square  miles,  and  the  desert  west  of  it  a still  larger  area. 
The  Sevier,  Preuss  and  Little  Salt  lakes,  all  together,  are  small, 
in  comparison.  Formerly  a mighty  river  flowed  northward  from 
the  vicinity  of  Sevier  lake  to  the  westward  of  Great  Salt  lake, 
the  dry  bed  of  which,  nearly  a mile  in  width,  must  be. crossed  in 
going  west  from  Salt  Lake  City  to  Deep  Creek.  Since  it  dried 
up,  hills  and  spurs  of  mountains  have  been  upheaved  in  its  course, 
but  the  old  channel  continues  on  its  way  up  hill  and  down,  and 
over  them  all.  Divided  off  from  Great  Salt  lake  by  a sort  of 
causeway  800  feet  high  is  Rush  Valley,  containing  a lake  cover- 
ing twenty  to  thirty  square  miles,  where  twenty  years  ago  there 
was  hay  land  and  a military  reservation.  This,  as  well  as  the 
accompanying  filling  up  of  Great  Salt  lake,  shows  a decided 
aqueous  increase  in  Salt  Lake  Basin  within  that  time.  Rush 
Valley  has  mining  and  agricultural  settlements,  but  much  more 
pastoral  than  arable  land ; and  so  has  Skull  Valley,  to  the  west- 
ward. But  from  these  south  to  the  rim  of  the  Basin,  there  are 
only  occasional  habitable  spots,  and  they  are  due  to  springs. 
The  mountains  are  the  source  of  the  wealth  of  Utah,  present  and 
prospective,  which  consists  in  water  and  metals.  They  gather  the 
snows  in  winter  which  feed  the  streams  in  summer.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  Territory  the  Wahsatch  Range  attains 
generally  a high  altitude,  with  a mass  in  proportion.  There  is  a 
large  accumulation  of  snow  in  winter,  and  the  streams  are  corre- 
spondingly large  and  numerous.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  Ter- 
ritory the  main  range  is  lower  and  less  massive  ; the  average 
temperature  is  higher,  of  course;  there  is  less  snow,  smaller  and 
fewer  streams,  and  more  desert  in  proportion.  This  part  of  the 
Territory  is  not  rich  in  agricultural  resources.  The  isolated 
ranges  in  the  Great  Basin  seldom  give  rise  to  streams  of  much 
magnitude,  and  the  intervening  valleys  partake  more  of  the 
desert  character.  But  all  the  mountains,  so  far  as  known,  are 
full  of  minerals,  and  there  is  generally  water  enough  for  the  pur- 
poses of  mining  and  reducing  them. 


CL/MATE  OF  UTAH, 


4H 

The  region  east  of  the  Wahsatch  Mountains  and  south  of  the 
Uintah  Range,  is  wholly  in  the  Colorado  Basin.  It  is  not  as  yet 
settled  to  any  considerable  extent,  but  the  deep  canons  of  the 
Grand,  Green,  San  Juan  and  Rio  Colorado,  which  traverse  it,  are 
full  of  wonders  and  terrors.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  the  mineral  wealth  of  this  region  is  fully  equal  to  that  of  the 
Great  Salt  Lake  Basin,  and  unless  the  lack  of  water  shall  prevent 
their  successful  working,  the  whole  region  will,  a few  years 
hence,  be  honeycombed  with  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  lead, 
copper,  iron  and  coal. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  a mountainous  country  like  Utah 
will  vary  considerably  with  its  varying  altitudes  and  exposures. 
The  inhabited  parts  of  the  Territory  range,  in  general,  between 
4,300  and  6,300  feet  above  the  sea ; but  seventy  per  cent,  of  the 
population  is  settled  in  valleys  not  exceeding  4,500  feet  in  eleva- 
tion, and  probably  fifty  per  cent,  in  the  basin  of  Great  Salt  lake. 
In  these  lower  valleys  the  climate  is  mild  and  agreeable.  Its 
perpetual  charm  cannot  be  conveyed  by  meteorological  statistics. 
The  atmosphere  is  dry,  elastic,  transparent  and  bracing ; and  the 
temperature,  while  ranging  high  in  summer,  and  not  altogether 
exempt  from  the  fickleness  characteristic  of  the  climate  of  North 
America  in  general,  compares  favorably  in  respect  of  equability 
with  that  of  the  United  States  at  large,  and  especially  with  that 
of  Colorado  and  the  Territories  north  and  south  of  Utah.  Its 
range  upwards  is  less  than  that  of  St.  Louis,  Philadelphia  and 
New  York,  to  say  nothing  of  that  of  Arizona;  while  in  the  other 
direction  there  is  no  comparison,  either  with  the  Eastern  States, 
intersected  by  the  same  isothermal,  or  with  Colorado,  Idaho  and 
Montana.  This  description  applies  mainly  to  Northern  and  Cen- 
tral Utah  within  the  Great  Salt  Lake  Basin.  Outside  that  Basin, 
across  the  Wahsatch  Mountains,  and  at  an  elevation  not  much 
greater,  at  Coalville,  for  example,  not  more  than  seven  or  eight 
miles  farther  north,  and  perhaps  thirty-five  miles  east,  the  differ- 
ence of  climate  is  very  marked.  The  annual  mean  temperature 
at  Salt  Lake  City  is  51°  9';  at  Coalville,  48°  65';  the  spring  means 
at  the  two  places  are  51^7'  and  45°  9';  the  summer  means  75° 
9'  and  69°  2';  the  autumn,  54°  8'  and  48°  9';  and  the  winter 
means,  32°  i'  and  21°  9'. 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  455 

In  Southern  Utah,  both  within  and  without  the  Basin,  the  cli- 
mate is  much  more  tropical,  approaching  to  that  of  Arizona. 


Meteorology  of  Salt  Lake  City  and  Camp  Douglas. 


MONTHS. 

1877. 

TEMPERATURE. 

HUMIDITY. 

MEAN 

PRESSURE. 

Mean,  j 

Max. 

Min. 

Rng. 

Per  Ct.| 

Rainfall 

Inches. 

Barometer 

Inches. 

January  

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

0 

27.9 

33-7  i 

48.0  1 

48.6 

56.7  1 
65-9  i 

7^2 

76.3  1 

65.0  1 
510  I 

40.1  1 
31-7  ! 

0 

50 

55 

73 

70 

83 

90 

98 

96 

90 

80 

60 

51 

0 

3 

15 

28 

30 

34 

43 

50 

53 

42 

25 

15 

8 

0 

47 

40 

45 

40 

49 

47 

48 

43 

48 

55 

45 

43 

i 

74.9 

75-3  • 

52.9 

48.6 

42.1 

29.7 

24.1 

25-1 

31-5 

41.0 

55-4 

68.1 

.87 

.38 

2.93 

2.14 

3-49 

.80 

.02 

.28 

.90 

2.41 

1.02 

1. 1 1 

30.071 

30.076 

29.894 

29.834 

29.791 

29.927 

29.919 

29.971 

29-937 

29.971 

30.078 

30.039 

For  the  Year 

51-9 

98 

3 95 

47-4 

16.35 

29.950 

MONTHS. 

1878. 

TEMPERATURE. 

HUMIDITY. 

MEAN 

PRESSURE. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

1 Rug- 

Per  Ct. 

j Rainfall 

1 Inches. 

Barometer 

Inches. 

January . . . ! 

February  

March 

April 

May • 

June 

July 

August  

September 

October 

November 

December 

0 

30.0 

32.8 

46.6 

49.8 
56.2 

69.4 
77-7 

78.5 

60.5 

48.5 

42.7 
i 29.7 

0 

52 

60 

73 

73 

83 

93 

96 

97 

92 

78 

68 

56 

0 

5 

20 

27 

30 

34 

45 

52 

60 

38 

22 

22 

8 

0 

47 

40 

46 

43 

49 

48 

44 

37 

54 

56 

46 

48 

64.8 

66.2 
52.6 

43- 4 
39-0 

307 

26.2 
33-7 
37-0 

44- 5 
54-6 
59-1 

1.07 

3-49 

2.54 

2.63 

2.50 

•35 

1.08 
.81 

3-15 

1-39 

.63 

.11 

30.035 

29.882 

29.926 

29.817 

29.882 

29.939 

29.900 

29.956 

29-975 

30.055 

30.081 

30.091 

For  the  Year 

51-9 

97 

5 

46 

45-9 

' 19-75 

i 

j 29.979 

1 

We  have  no  meteorological  statistics  of  any  points  in  the  Ter- 
ritory, except  Salt  Lake  City  and  Camp  Douglas,  which  is  near 
it,  but  500  feet  higher.  The  above  tables  give  the  tempera- 


CLIMATE  OF  UTAH. 


456 

ture,  rainfall,  humidity  and  mean  barometrical  pressure  at  Salt 
Lake,  and  such  particulars  as  are  at  hand  concerning  Camp 
Douglas.  The  latitude  of  Salt  Lake  City  is  41°  10';  the  longi- 
tude, 112°;  the  elevation,  4,362.25  feet. 

The  mean  air  pressure  at  Salt  Lake  City  is  25.63'  inches  ; 
water  boils  at  204.3°.  The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  north- 
northwest,  and  the  most  windy  months  are  March,  July,  August 
and  September.  The  mean  velocity  of  the  winds  during  the 
entire  year  is  5^  miles  an  hour.  On  the  ocean  it  is  18  miles; 
at  Liverpool  it  is  13;  at  Toronto,  9;  at  Philadelphia,  ii.  The 
climate  of  Utah,  on  the  whole,  is  not  unlike  that  of  Northwestern 
Texas  and  New  Mexico,  and  is  agreeable  except  for  a month  or 
so  in  winter,  and  then  the  temperature  seldom  falls  to  zero,  or 
snow  to  a greater  depth  than  a foot,  and  it  soon  melts  away,  al- 
though it  sometimes  affords  a few  days’  sleighing.  The  spring- 
opens  about  the  middle  of  March,  the  atmosphere  becomes  as 
clear  as  a diamond,  deciduous  trees  burst  at  once  into  bloom,  and 
then  into  leaf,  while  the  bright  green  of  the  valleys  follows  the' 
retiring  snow-line  steadily  up  the  mountain  slopes.  The  summer 
is  not  unpleasant  in  its  onset,  accompanied  as  it  is  by  refreshing 
breezes  and  full  streams  from  the  higher  melting  snow  banks. 
Springs  of  sweet  water,  fed  largely  from  the  surface,  bubble  forth 
everywhere.  But  as  the  season  advances  the  drought  increases, 
every  stirring  air,  near  or  far,  raises  a cloud  of  alkaline  dust  until 
the  atmosphere  is  full  of  it.  Sometimes  a shower  precipitates  it, 
but  there  are  more  dry  than  wet  storms.  The  springs  fail  or 
become  impregnated  with  mineral  salts,  and  the  streams  run  low, 
or  dry  up.  Vegetation  dies  in  the  fierce  and  prolonged  heat  and 
drought,  if  not  artificially  watered.  Still,  from  the  rapid  radia- 
tion of  the  earth’s  heat,  the  nights  are  always  agreeably  cool, 
and  the  heat  itself  seems  to  have  but  slight  debilitating  quality. 
The  presence  or  absence  of  the  sun  has  a marked  effect  on  the 
temperature  from  the  great  transparency  of  the  air.  Let  his 
rays  be  cut  off,  even  in  July,  and  a fire  is  pleasant;  while,  if  they 
have  free  passage,  the  fires  are  allowed  to  go  out  even  in  January. 
October  ushers  in  a different  state  of  things.  The  atmosphere 
clears  up  again  as  in  spring,  and  the  landscape  softens  with  the 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


457 

rich  browns,  russets  and  scarlets  of  the  dying  vegetation,  which 
reaches  up  the  mountain  sides  to  their  summits  in  places ; 
but  on  them  the  gorgeous  picture  is  soon  overlaid  by  the  first 
snows  of  approaching  winter.  The  fall  is  a delightful  season,  and 
is  generally  drawn  out  nearly  to  the  end  of  the  year. 

We  have  been  more  particular  in  stating  the  peculiarities  of 
the  climate  of  Utah  because  it  is  just  now,  and  as  we  think  justly, 
recommended  for  its  sanitary  qualities  in  certain  diseases.  The 
following  summary  of  the  classes  and  forms  of  disease  in  which 
it  has  been  found  most  beneficial  has  the  authority  of  four  very 
eminent  army  surgeons — Surgeons  P.  Moffatt,  Charles  Smart, 
E.  P.  Vollum  and  J.  F.  Hamilton  ; and  will,  we  believe,,  be  found 
to  be  sustained  by  the  experience  of  most  of  those  who  have  gone 
thither  for  health.  It  is  important,  however,  that  health-seekers 
should  spend  as  much  of  every  day  as  possible  in  the  open  air. 

High  altitudes  and  areas  of  low  barometric  pressure  quicken 
the  respiration  and  circulation,  and  are  therefore  unfavorable  in 
cases  of  pulmonary  disease  that  are  far  advanced,  and  also  in 
heart  disease,  and  that  form  of  chronic  bronchitis  associated 
with  it.  The  other  forms  of  chronic  bronchitis,  chronic  pneumo- 
nia, and  phthisis,  are  the  diseases,  par  excellence,  upon  which 
such  localities  exercise  a favorable  influence.  Consumption  does 
not  originate  here,  and  where  the  monthly  fluctuation  of  the  ther- 
mometer does  not  exceed  50°,  and  the  mean  monthly  tempera- 
ture is  at,  or,  within  limits,  above  50°,  and  the  humidity  is  under 
50  per  cent.,  a residence  is  beneficial  to  consumptives,  if  com- 
menced early  enough.  The  best  treatment  known  for  consump- 
tion is  a year  of  steady  daily  horseback  riding  in  a mountainous 
country,  diet  of  corn  bread  and  bacon,  with  a moderate  quantity 
of  whiskey."^  The  beneficial  influence  of  the  climate  on  asthma 
is  decided.  It  cannot  exist  here,  except  in  a relieved  and  modi- 
fied condition.  Bronchitis  appears  in  a mild  form  during  the  wet 
and  thawing  periods  of  spring  and  fall,  but  it  always  yields  to 
treatment.  Rheumatic  fevers  are  scattered  over  the  months 
without  reference  to  season  ; but  very  few  cases  become  chronic. 


* The  more  moderate  the  better. — L.  P.  B. 


458  C7TA//  AS  A SAN/JARY  RESORT. 

The  intermittents  are  imported,  and  the  tendency  in  them  is  to 
longer  intervals  and  ultimate  recovery.  A remittent,  called 
“ Mountain  Fever,”  is  indigenous.  It  yields  readily  to  simple 
treatment  if  attended  to  in  time,  but  if  not  develops  into  a modi- 
fied typhoid,  which  is  liable  to  prove  fatal.  Experience  in  the 
miners’  hospitals  at  Salt  Lake  City  shows  that  the  climatic  con- 
ditions are  very  favorable  to  recovery  from  severe  injuries.  The 
summer  heat  is  great,  but  not  debilitating,  and  the  dry  pure  air 
and  cool,  invigorating  nights,  enable  patients  to  sustain  the  shock 
of  surgical  operations  that  could  not  often  be  safely  attempted  in 
more  humid  climates.  Pyemia,  or  blood  poisoning,  the  frequent 
accompaniment  of  severe  injuries  and  of  surgery,  is  of  extremely 
rare  occurrence.  One  has  a choice  of  altitude,  ranging  from 
4,300  to  7,000  feet  above  the  sea,,  with  access  to  mineral  springs, 
hot  and  cold,  of  decidedly  efficacious  qualities  in  the  cure  of  many 
ills,  as  experience  has  amply  shown  ; and  for  the  whole  of  Salt 
Lake  Basin,  the  softening  and  other  healthful  influences  of  at 
least  3,000  square  miles  of  salt  water,  giving  ofl*  a saline  air,  and 
affording  the  benefits  of  ocean  bathing  without  its  discomforts 
and  dangers.  The  waters  of  the  lake  are  so  dense  with  the  salt 
in  solution  that  it  is  impossible  to  sink  in  it,  and  at  the  same  time 
so  pleasant  that  the  bather  can  remain  in  the  water  all  day  with- 
out serious  inconvenience  or  injury. 

Temperature y etc. , at  Camp  Douglas. 


MONTHS. 

1 

7 A.  M. 

2 P.  M. 

0^ 

Os 

Diurnal 

Variation. 

Percentage 
of  Sick 

I January  

28 

35 

29 

7 

33-6o 

February 

23 

34 

24 

II 

31-30 

March 

' 33 

i 47 

39 

14 

32.33 

April 

38 

50 

41 

12 

36.42 

' May 

45 

55 

47 

10 

28.74 

' June 

61 

77 

65 

16 

29.28 

1 

, 68 

85 

73 

17 

23.86 

August 

65 

! 80 

69 

15 

25-38 

1 Septembt-r 

56 

I 74 

62 

18 

20.00 

1 October 

41 

56 

45 

15 

21.97 

j November ... 

38 

53 

41 

15 

38.68 

December i 

1 J 

22 

1 

51 

24 

9 

40.50 

The  preceding  table  relates  to  Camp  Douglas,  which  is  on  an 


OUK  WESTER EMPIRE, 


459 

elevation  two  miler.  east  of  Salt  Lake  City  and  500  feet  above  it, 
being  4,862  feet  above  the  sea.  This  table  gives  the  diurnal 
variation  of  temperature  at  7 a.  m.,  2 p.  m.  and  9 p.  m.  for  each 
month  of  the  year,  and  the  effect  of  this  variation  in  reducing  or 
increasing  the  percentage  of  the  sick  in  the  hospital  connected 
with  the  camp. 

The  mean  temperature  of  June  to  September  inclusive  at  2 p.  m. 
was  79°  ; at  9 p.  M.  57^  ; difference  22°  ; mean  percentage  of  sick 
for  these  months,24.63.  For  the  other  eight  months  the  mean  at 
2 p.  M.  was  47°  ; at  9 p.  M.  36°  ; difference  1 1°.  Mean  percentage 
of  sick  for  these  months,  32.93.  The  months  of  greatest  mean 
diurnal  variation  seem  to  be  the  healthiest  months.  Attention  is 
called  to  the  mean  temperature  of  the  four  warmest  months,  at 
9 o’clock  in  the  evening,  viz.,  57°;  a night  temperature  which 
ensures  quiet  sleep. 

The  second  of  these  tables  shows  the  annual  mean,  maximum, 
minimum  and  range  of  temperature,  and  annual  rainfall  at  Camp 
Douglas  for  sixteen  years,  1863-1878. 


YEARS. 

TEMPERATURE. 

RAINFALL. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

Range. 

Inches. 

1863 

52.93 

103 

7 

96 

7.47 

1864 

52.22 

97 

-4 

lOI 

14.92 

1865 

50.11 

100 

6 

94 

15.51 

1866 

1 51.87 

94 

9 

85 

22. 29 

1867 

i 52.71 

95 

0 

95 

26. 14 

1868 

! 50.66 

96 

5 

91 

17.25 

1869 

53.61 

97 

7 

90 

22.32 

1870 

51.66 

96 

4 

92 

20.96 

1871 

53.09 

104 

8 

96 

23.12 

1872 

50.42 

91 

0 

91 

18. 12 

1873 

49. 26 

98 

-3 

lOI 

17.37 

1874 

50.18 

97 

8 

89 

19.55 

1875 

51.26 

95 

9 

86 

21.07 

1876 

50.64 

99 

8 

91 

18.31 

1877 

51.00 

98 

5 

93 

14.52 

1878 

51.29 

93 

8 

85 

17.86 

Mean  for  16  years 

51.43 

97 

1 

5 i 

1 

1 

92 

18.58 

46o 


OITR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


Mines  and  Mining  Products. — With  her  increasing  population, 
it  is  hardly  probable  that  Utah  will  produce  more  grains,  etc., 
than  sufficient  to  supply  the  home  demand  for  agricultural  pro- 
ducts. She  may  export  some  wheat,  but  she  will  import  more 
corn  ; she  may  have  more  than  a supply  of  some  fruits  and  root 
crops,  but  she  will  import  as  much  or  more  of  others. 

She  may  have  cattle,  sheep,  and  possibly  horses  and  mules  to 
export,  and  as  her  grazing  lands  become  developed,  there  may 
be  a large  traffic  in  live-stock,  for  which  she  has  good  facilities. 

But  the  chief  attraction  which  Utah  possesses  for  immigrants 
is  its  mineral  wealth.  Looking  southward  from  one  of  the  sum- 
mits of  the  Wahsatch  Mountains,  just  above  their  junction  with 
the  Uintah  Range,  and  the  smoke  of  the  smelters  and  stamp 
mills  is  seen  in  the  clear  pure  air  for  a hundred  miles,  and  on 
both  sides  of  the  Wahsatch ; while  to  the  east  and  southeast  the 
mines  of  copper,  coal,  sulphur,  alum,  borax,  graphite  and  other 
minerals,  with  some  gold  and  silver,  are  found  in  great  abun- 
dance. 

There  is  not  a county  in  the  Territory  where  mines  have  not 
been  located,  and  mining  districts  in  greater  or  lesser  number 
organized.  These  mining  districts  now  cover  over  1,200,000 
• acres.  They  are,  perhaps,  most  numerous  in  Salt  Lake,  Utah, 
Juab,  Beaver,  Box  Elder,  Tooele,  Millard,  Pi-ute  and  Iron  coun- 
ties, but  Washington  county,  Weber,  Davis  and  Summit  are 
coming  into  prominence  either  for  their  silver  mines,  gold  placers, 
or  deposits  of  coal,  sulphur,  borax,  alum,  etc.  We  cannot  under- 
take to  name  all  these  mines  or  mining  districts  ; but  a few  notes 
in  regard  to  some  of  the  most  prominent  of  them  will  be  interest- 
ing. Bingham  Canon  and  its  chief  town,  Bingham  City,  is  about 
thirty  miles  southwest  of  Salt  Lake  City,  and  is  a rift  or  canon 
of  the  Oquirrh  Mountains,  through  which  a small  muddy  creek 
flows  on  its  way  to  the  Jordan  river,  about  twelve  miles  south  of 
Salt  Lake  City.  It  has  had  strange  vicissitudes.  In  1859  rich 
gold  placers  were  found  there  by  General  Conner’s  soldiers,  and 
were  extensively  worked  and  still  yield  fair  pay  for  working.  In 


MINES  AND  MINING  IN  UTAH. 


461 

1869  extensive  beds  of  silver  lead  ore  were  discovered  and  mined 
with  decided  profit,  and  some  of  the  mines  are  still  profitably 
worked;  in  1876  it  was  discovered  that  the  disintegrated  rock 
which  had  been  thrown  aside  from  the  silver  mines  as  waste 
really  contained  from  ^19  to  ^25  of  gold  to  the  ton,  and  was  very 
easily  reduced,  and  as  this  paid  better  than  the  silver,  the  mining 
for  these  quartz-gold  ores  was  immediately  resumed.  Mean- 
while, however,  some  of  the  silver  mines  in  the  canon  had  been 
written  up  and  their  productiveness  eulogized,  and  one  of  these, 
the  Old  Telegraph,  which  was  really  worth  perhaps  from  ^700,000 
to  $1,000,000,  was  sold  after  examination  to  a French  company 
for  ^3,000,000.  The  mine  has  not  only  never  paid  a dividend, 
but  is  run  either  at  a loss  or  without  profit,  although  all  its  re- 
duction works  and  the  appointments  of  the  mine  are  of  the  first 
class.  It  was  another  instance  in  which  silver  mines  in  Utah 
have  been  sold  to  European  capitalists  at  prices  far  beyond  their 
actual  value.  The  sales  of  the  Little  Emma,  Flagstaff  and 
McHenry,  all  Utah  mines,  are  still  fresh  in  the  public  memory, 
and  have  entailed  an  unwarranted  disgrace  upon  mining  proper- 
ties, especially  in  Utah.  The  Little  Cottonwood  Mines,  which 
included  the  Emma  and  Flagstaff,  are  now  developing  other 
mining  properties  there ; but  the  frauds  connected  with  those 
mines  have  destroyed  confidence  in  them,  and  the  present  and 
prospective  yield  is  not  sufficient  to  restore  it.  The  Parley’s 
Park  Mines,  in  the  vicinity  of  Park  City,  of  which  the  Ontario 
Mine  is  the  principal,  have  an  excellent  property,  though  in  their 
case  the  failure  of  the  McHenry  Mine  to  make  good  the  repre- 
sentations under  which  it  was  sold,  has  proved  a serious  draw- 
back. The  mill  connected  with  this  mine  shipped  East,  monthly, 
in  1879,  from  ^135,000  to  ^145,000,  and  new  mines  in  the 
vicinity  are  promising  well.  On  the  Oquirrh  Mountains  there 
is  also  the  Ophir  District,  which  has  the  Hidden  Treasure  and 
many  other  silver  mines  of  note  ; the  Stockton  Mines,  which 
have  already  yielded  largely ; and  the  Tintic  Silver  District,  the 
mines  in  which  carry  gold,  silver  and  copper.  In  Southern  and 
Southwestern  Utah,  within  the  Great  Basin  and  south  of  Sevier' 
lake,  there  are  many  silver  mines  of  great  value,  and  which  are 


462 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


conducted  on  sound  business  principles.  In  this  region  the 
mines  are  richer  as  we  proceed  toward  the  southern  boundary. 
In  the  Beaver  Lake  District  there  are  valuable  copper  mines,  and 
a little  to  the  east  and  southeast  are  silver  mines  in  the  same 
district,  and  some  valuable  mines  in  the  Ohio  District.  A 
little  farther  south  are  the  Frisco  Silver  Mines,  to  which 
point  a branch  of  the  Southern  Utah  Railway  is  running. 
Among  these  mines,  the  Horn  Silver  Mine,  about  one  mile  from 
the  village  of  Frisco,  is  said  to  be  the  richest  silver  mine  in  the 
world.  Professor  J.  S.  Newberry,  who  visited  it  in  the  autumn 
of  1879,  and  examined  it  very  carefully,  estimated  that  there  was 
not  less  than  ^15,000,000  worth  of  ore  in  sight,  and  a fair  pros- 
pect of  at  least  as  much  more  when  the  mine  was  fully  developed. 
This  ore  is  chlorides  and  horn  silver.  The  Carbonate  and 
Rattler  Mines,  and  the  Cave  Mine  in  the  same  vicinity,  are  car- 
bonates easily  reduced  and  very  rich  ; the  last  named  carries 
considerable  gold  ; as  do  the  Picacho  Mines.  Around  and  just 
below  Little  Salt  lake  are  the  Silver  Belt  and  the  Sumner  Mining 
Districts,  and  in  the  same  vicinity  immense  coal  beds  and  exten- 
sive deposits  of  iron  and  alum.  Other  coal  measures  are  still 
farther  south,  and  in  the  extreme  southwest  is  the  Leeds  Silver 
Mining  District,  which  has  many  rich  mines ; most  of  these  are 
chlorides  and  easily  reduced.  East  of  the  Leeds  District,  and  on 
and  near  the  Rio  Virgen,  is  the  Harrisburg  District,  in  which  are 
a large  number  of  excellent  mines.  Among  these  are  those  of 
Silver  Reef,  where  sandstone  beds  of  cretaceous  or  tertiary  age 
are  found  impregnated  with  silver,  either  native  or  in  chlorides. 
The  Stormont  Silver  Mining  Company  owns  several  mines  on 
Silver  Reef,  and  is  steadily  producing  from  ^40,000  to  ^50,000 
of  bullion  per  month,  with  a fair  prospect  of  increase  with  larger 
facilities  for  reduction.  No  smelting  is  needed,  but  the  reduction 
is  effected  through  stamp-mills  and  wet  amalgamation.  Just  at 
the  boundary  of  Utah,  Arizona  and  Nevada  is  the  Silver  Park  Dis- 
trict, where  the  argentiferous  deposit  is  an  enormous  but  irreg- 
ular vein  lying  in  the  contact  between  porphyry  and  limestone. 
Some  of  the  ore  is  very  rich,  and  Professor  Newberry  says  that 
“ it  seems  to  present  very  much  the  same  problems  as  the  great 


MINING  EAST  OF  THE  WAHSATCH  MOUNTAINS. 


463 

veins  of  the  Shakspeare  District,  New  Mexico,  or  the  Ruby  Hill 
District,  Nevada;  that  is,  they  are  very  good  or  good  for  nothing, 
and  considerable  time  and  money  will  be  required  to  decide  which 
is  true/’ 

The  eastern  slope  of  the  Wahsatch  Mountains  undoubtedly 
contains  both  silver  and  gold,  though,  whether  it  is  likely  to  be  of 
ores  which  will  prove  profitable  for  present  working,  is  a question. 
The  Great  Colorado  Basin,  which  has  shown  itself  so  rich  in  the 
precious  metals  in  Colorado  and  Arizona,  is  probably  equally  rich 
here.  But  we  know  that  copper,  and  iron,  and  coal  are  not  only 
'abundant  but  that  they  are  of  excellent  quality  and  easily 
worked.  The  coal  beds  of  Utah  contain  coal  of  good  quality, 
sufficient  to  supply  the  entire  region  west  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. It  is  bituminous  or  semi-bituminous  in  character,  and 
many  of  the  beds.  Professor  Newberry  says,  are  excellent  cok- 
ing coals.  Whether  it  is  a lignite  of  the  Tertiary  formations,  or 
a true  coal  of  the  Carboniferous  era,  does  not  seem  to  be  fully 
settled.  Possibly  the  deposits  of  the  north  are  of  a later  geo- 
logic age  than  those  of  the  south.  Volcanic  action,  here  as  in 
New  Mexico,  may  have  wrought  some  changes  in  it.  The  iron 
is  of  all  varieties,  and  is  pronounced  by  skilful  iron  masters  equal 
in  quality  to  any  in  the  world,  and  the  quantity  is  vast  beyond 
conception.  Its  close  proximity  to  good  coking  coals  and  the 
excellent  fluxes  close  at  hand  insure  very  cheap  production  of 
the  best  qualities  of  iron,  and  already  several  large  furnaces  are 
at  work. 

Recently  antimony  has  been  discovered.  The  antimony  mines 
are  situated  200  miles  south  of  Salt  Lake,  and  on  the  headwaters 
of  the  Sevier  river. 

Objects  of  Interest. — In  wild,  grand,  and  terrible  displays  of 
the  power  of  the  forces  of  nature,  Utah  is  perhaps  unsurpassed 
by  no  State  or  Territory  of  “Our  Western  Empire.”  The 
canons  of  the  Green  and  Grand  rivers  and  of  the  Rio  Colorado, 
which  they  unite  to  form,  as  well  as  those  of  the  San  Juan,  have 
been  most  graphically  described  by  Colonel  J.  W.  Powell  and 
other  writers  who  have  descended  these  rivers  for  a part  or 


OBJECTS  OF  INTEREST. 


464 

the  whole  of  their  course.  The  greater  part  of  the  main  stream 
of  the  Green  river,  more  than  a hundred  miles  of  the  Grand  river, 
and  about  250  miles  of  the  course  of  the  Colorado,  including  some 
of  the.  most  remarkable  canons  of  each,  are  within  the  bounds  of 
Utah,  and  east  of  the  Wahsatch  Mountains.  Near  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  Territory  the  Monument  Canon  of  the  Colorado 
commences,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  San  Juan  is  the  famous 
Temple  of  Music,  one  of  the  most  wonderful  of  the  results  of 
erosion  on  these  rocks.  But  it  is  not  the  Colorado  Basin  alone 
which  abounds  in  remarkable  natural  scenery.  The  Great  Inte-, 
rior  or  Salt  Lake  Basin  is  full  of  wonders.  Among  these  are  the 
Temples  on  the  Rio  Virgen,  the  only  affluent  of  the  Colorado 
which  has  its  sources  in  the  Great  Salt  Lake  Basin;  while  the 
Little  Zion  Valley,  north  of  that  river,  is  remarkable  for  its  quiet: 
beauty. 

Farther  north,  in  the  Great  Basin,  are  some  very  extraordinary 
combinations  of  canon,  cataract,  valley  and  mountain  spires.  Of 
one  of  these — the  American  Fork  Canon  of  the  Wahsatch  Moun- 
tains, which  opens  upon  the  minor  Basin  of  Utah  lake,  and  has 
been  called  the  Yosemite  of  Utah — a recent  writer  thus  speaks: 

“This  canon  is  noted  not  only  for  the  towering  altitude  of  its 
enclosing  walls,  but  for  the  picturesqueness  of  the  infinite  shapes, 
resembling  artificial  objects,  towers,  pinnacles  and  minarets 
chiefly,  into  which  the  elements  have  worn  them.  At  first  the 
formation  is  granite  and  the  cliffs  rise  to  a lofty  height  almost 
vertically.  Then  come  quartzite  or  rocks  of  looser  texture, 
conglomerates  and  sandstones ; the  canon  opens  to  the  sky  and 
you  enter  a long  gallery,  the  sides  of  which  recede  at  an  angle 
of  forty-five  degrees  to  a dizzy  height,  profusely  set  with  these 
elemental  sculptures  in  endless  variety  of  size  and  pattern,  often 
stained  with  rich  colors.  ‘ Towers,  battlements,  shattered  castles, 
and  the  images  of  mighty  sentinels,’  says  one,  ‘exhibit  their  out- 
lines against  the  sky.  Rocks  twisted,  gnarled  and  distorted  ; here 
a mass  like  the  skeleton  of  some  colossal  tree  which  lightning 
had  wrenched  and  burnt  to  fixed  cinder;  there  another,  vast 
and  overhanging,  apparently  crumbling  and  threatening  to  fall 
in  ruin.  At  Deer  creek  the  canon  proper  ceases,  the  road  has 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


465 

climbed  out  of  it  2,500  feet  in  eight  miles.  This  is  the  main  resort 
of  pleasure  parties.  Since  the  railroad  was  taken  up,  its  bed  has 
become  a wagon  road,  which  continues  to  Forest  City,  eight  miles 
above.  The  surroundings  are  still  mountainous,  but  there  are 
breaks  where  the  brooks  come  in,  grassy  hills,  aspens  and 
pines. 

“ To  the  sublimity  of  the  canon  scenery  in  summer  an  inde- 
scribable beauty  is  added  in  the  autumn,  when  the  deciduous 
trees  and  shrubbery  on  a thousand  slopes,  touched  by  the  frost, 
present  the  colors  of  a rich  painting  and  meet  the  eye  wherever 
it  rests.  To  get  the  full  benefit  of  this,  one  must  go  up  and  up 
till  there  is  nothing  higher  to  climb.  In  winter  another  and  very 
different  phase  succeeds.  The  snows,  descending  for  days  and 
days  in  blinding  clouds,  bury  the  forests  and  fill  the  canon. 
Accumulating  to  a great  depth  on  high  and  steep  acclivities,  they 
start  without  warning  and  bury  in  ruin  whatever  may  be  in  their 
track.  Hardly  a year  passes  that  miners  and  teamsters,  wagons 
and  cabins  are  not  swept  away  and  buried  out  of  sight  for  months. 
The  avalanche  of  the  Wahsatch  is  quite  as  formidable  as  that  of 
the  Alps.  Probably  forty  feet  of  snow  falls  on  the  main  range 
every  winter.  Seven  miles  of  tramway  in  Little  Cottonwood 
Canon  are  closely  and  strongly  shedded  for  defence  against  the 
awful  avalanche.  Even  this  is  not  always  effectual.” 

The  Great  Salt  lake  itself  is  an  object  of  great  interest.  The 
remarkable  density  of  its  waters,  which  at  some  seasons  and 
particularly  in  times  of  great  drought,  is  so  strong  a brine  as  to 
contain  two  pounds  of  salt  to  the  gallon  of  water,  its  islands 
which  contain  rich  deposits  of  silver  and  copper  and  abound  in 
game,  its  shores  covered  with  salt,  and  the  buoyancy  of  its  waters, 
in  which  one  cannot  sink,  all  excite  the  wonder  of  the  visitor. 

The  mineral  and  hot  springs,  which  abound  throughout  the 
Territory,  are  worthy  of  notice.  The  hot  springs  near  Ogden 
are  a favorite  resort  for  tourists. 


466 


pvAsmiVGTo.y. 


Historical  Data. — Utah  derives  its  name  from  the  Utes,  a tribe 
of  Indians  who  were  its  original  inhabitants.  The  Mormons, 
driven  from  Illinois  and  Missouri,  emigrated  hither  in  1847  and 
1848,  and  established  themselves  in  a region  then  remote  from 
other  inhabitants.  The  title  of  this  region  passed  from  Mexico 
to  the  United  States  with  that  of  New  Mexico  and  California,  in 
1848,  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe- Hidalgo.  It  was  organized  as 
a Territory  in  i85oby  the  name  of  Utah;  but  the  Mormons  called 
it  “ Deseret,”  and  in  1862  formed  a Constitution,  and  demanded 
admission  into  the  Union  under  that  name.  This  was  refused, 
and  there  has  been  much  controversy,  and  sometimes  threatened 
violence  by  the  Mormons,  since  that  time.  In  i857  a most  atro- 
cious massacre  of  a large  party  of  emigrants  was  perpetrated 
under  Mormon  direction  at  Mountain  Meadow,  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  Territory.  Some  of  the  actors  in  that  massacre  were 
hung  for  it  in  1877.  Most  of  the  mining  enterprises  which  have 
brought  in  so  considerable  a non- Mormon  population  have  been 
undertaken  since  1869.  It  was  admitted  as  a State  to  the 
Union,  Nov.  ii,  1889. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

WASHINGTON. 

Washington  is,  with  the  exception  of  Alaska,  which  is  not 
yet  organized,  the  extreme  northwestern  member  of  “ Our 
Western  Empire,”  lying  between  the  parallels  of  45°  32^  and 
49°  north  latitude  ; and  between  the  meridians  of  1 17°  and  124° 
28'  west  lono-itude  from  Greenwich.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 

o 

and  northwest  by  British  Columbia,  the  boundary  line  being 
a zig-zag  one  to  give  Great  Britain  the  settlements  and  lands 
she  claimed.  Our  title  ran  legitimately  along  the  4Qth  paral’el 


OUR  IVES  TERN  EMPIRE.  467 

to  the  Pacific;  but  to  have  insisted  on  this  would  have  given  us 
the  greater  part  of  Vancouver  Island,  on  which  were  already  im- 
portant British  settlements.  The  line  was  finally  run,  not  with- 
out a long  and  tedious  arbitration,  through  the  centre  of  the  Strait 
of  Juan  de  Fuca,  the  Canal  de  Haro,  and  the  Gulf  of  Georgia  as 
far  as  to  the  49th  parallel.  From  the  centre  of  the  Gulf  o^* 
Georgia  to  the  west  line  of  Idaho,  the  northern  boundary  is 
along  the  49th  parallel.  The  eastern  boundary  is  the  Territory 
of  Idaho,  along  the  1 17th  meridian  to  Lewiston,  where  the  Snake 
river  makes  a sudden  bend  southward,  when  that  river  becomes 
'the  eastern  boundary  to  the  Oregon  line ; southward,  Oregon 
forms  its  limit,  the  line  running  along  the  46th  parallel  till  it 
reaches  the  Columbia  river  at  about  the  119th  meridian,  when 
the  Columbia  becomes  the  southern  boundary  to  the  Pacific;  on 
the  west,  it  is  washed  by  the  waves  of  the  Pacific  as  far  as  the 
Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca.  Its  length  from  north  to  south  ranges 
from  200  to  250  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west  about 
360  miles.  It  is  smaller  than  most  of  the  Territories,  and  sev- 
eral of  the  States  of  “ Our  Western  Empire,”  having  but  69,994 
square  miles,  or  44,796,160  acres  ; yet  this  area  is  one  and  a half 
times  that  of  New  York  or  Pennsylvania. 

Topography  and  Divisions. — The  State  is  popularly  divided 
into  Eastern  and  Western  Washington  by  the  Cascade  Range 
of  mountains,  which  trend  north-northeast  from  Oregon  in  a very 
disorderly  fashion  from  the  Dalles  of  the  Columbia  river  to  the 
line  of  British  Columbia,  following  for  most  of  the  distance  the 
west  bank  of  the  Columbia  river,  and  extending  in  parallel  ridges 
west-southwest  to  Puget  sound,  and  eastward  in  several  spurs 
north,  east-northeast,  and  east-southeast.  Almost  the  entire 
region  between  the  47th  and  the  49th  parallels  lying  between 
the  Columbia  river  and  Puget  sound  is  broken,  rolling  and 
mountainous,  though  the  mountains  are  not  high. 

Western  Washington,  the  part  of  the  territory  first  settled, 
consists  of  a valley  or  basin,  known  as  the  Puget  sound  basin, 
and  which  lies  between  two  ranges  of  mountains,  the  Cascade 
Mountains  on  the  east  and  the  Olympian  or  Coast  Range  on  the 
west.  The  Puget  sound  or  archipelago,  the  Mediterranean  of 


468  SAFETY  AND  BEAUTY  OF  PUGET  SOUND. 

the  Western  Continent,  as  it  is  often  called,  extends  from  the 
British  line  on  the  north  (the  Gulf  of  Georgia  penetrating  sev- 
eral hundred  miles  into  British  Columbia)  to  Olympia  on  the 
south.  It  includes  the  Straits  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  which  furnish  a 
broad  channel  into  the  Pacific,  the  Canal  de  Haro,  Washington 
Sound,  the  Gulf  of  Georgia,  Bellingham  Bay,  Rosario  Strait, 
Admiralty  Inlet,  Hood’s  Canal,  Lake  Washington,  several 
smaller  passes  and  inlets,  and  Anderson’s  Bay,  the  latter  items 
and  some  others  going  to  make  up  the  smaller  Puget  sound. 
It  has  a coast  line  in  the  Territory  of  1,594  miles,  and  its  area 
within  the  limits  of  the  Territory  is  over  2,000  square  miles.  More 
than  thirty-five  years  ago  Captain  (afterwards  Rear  Admiral) 
Wilkes,  who  had  been  engaged  on  a protracted  voyage  of  ex- 
ploration of  the  Pacific  coast,  said  of  this  sound: 

“Nothing  can  exceed  the  beauty  of  these  waters  and  their 
safety.  Not  a shoal  exists  within  the  Straits  of  Juan  de 
Fuca,  Admiralty  Inlet,  or  Hood’s  Canal  that  can  in  any  way 
interrupt  their  navigation  by  a 74-gun  ship.  I venture  nothing 
in  saying  there  is  no  country  in  the  world  that  possesses  waters 
equal  to  these.  They  cover  an  area  of  about  2,000  square  miles. 
The  shores  of  all  these  inlets  and  bays  are  remarkably  bold ; so 
much  so  that  in  many  places  a ship’s  side  would  strike  the  shore 
before  the  keel  would  touch  the  ground.  The  country  by  which 
these  waters  are  surrounded  is  remarkably  salubrious,  and  offers 
every  advantage  for  the  accommodation  of  a vast  commercial  and 
military  marine,  with  convenience  for  docks,  and  a great  many 
sites  for  towns  and  cities,  at  all  times  well  supplied  with  water 
and  capable  of  being  well  provided  with  everything  by  the  sur- 
rounding country,  which  is  well  adapted  for  agriculture. 

“The  Straits  of  Juan  de  Fuca  are  ninety-five  miles  in  length, 
and  have  an  average  width  of  eleven  miles.  At  the  entrance 
(eight  miles  in  width)  no  danger  exists,  and  it  may  be  safely  navi- 
gated throughout.  No  part  of  the  world  affords  finer  inland 
sounds,  or  a greater  number  of  harbors,  than  are  found  within 
the  Straits  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  capable  of  receiving  the  largest 
class  of  vessels  and  without  a danger  in  them  which  is  not  visi- 
ble. P'rom  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides  (eighteen  feet)  every 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


469 

facility  is  offered  for  the  erection  of  works  for  a great  maritime 
nation.  The  country  also  affords  as  many  sites  for  water-power 
as  any  other.” 

The  foothills  and  slopes  of  the  mountains  on  both  sides  are 
almost  wholly  covered  with  immense  forests  of  fir  and  cedar, 
reaching  to  the  very  summits  of  the  mountains.  Flowing  down 
from  the  western  slope  of  the  Cascade  Range,  ten  rivers  empty 
into  Puget  sound,  viz.:  the  Nisqually,  Puyallup,  White,  Cedar, 
Snoqualmie,  Snohomish,  Stillaguamish,  Duwamish,  Skagit,  and 
Nooksakh,  affording  many  hundred  miles  of  inland  shore  line  for 
logging  purposes,  and  having  in  their  valleys  an  estimated  area 
of  two  thousand  square  miles  of  alluvial  agricultural  lands. 
Most  of  these  rivers  are  navigable  for  steamers  of  light  draft, 
generally  as  far  up  as  the  alluvial  deposits  extend.  The  streams 
descending  eastward  from  the  Olympian  or  Coast  Range,  except 
the  Skokomish  and  the  Dungeness,  are  shorter  and  of  less 
importance.  The  mountains  approach  close  to  the  western  shores 
of  the  sound,  limiting  the  area  of  available  territory ; but  their 
sides  are  covered  with  vast  forests  of  valuable  timber  already 
known  to  the  markets  of  the  world.  Between  the  Olympian  or 
Coast  Range  and  the  Pacific  are  some  arable  lands,  but  the  soil 
is  not  so  rich,  though  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  timber. 
There  are  two  moderately  good  harbors  here — Gray’s  Harbor, 
and  Shoal-water  bay,  extensive  and  partially  land-locked  bodies 
of  water,  but  in  respect  to  depth  and  facility  of  loading  and  un- 
loading bearing  no  comparison  to  the  magnificent  harbors  of 
Puget  sound.  The  Chehalis  is  the  principal  stream  flowing  into 
Gray’s  Harbor ; it  has  numerous  affluents.  The  Willopah  and 
some  smaller  streams  fall  into  Shoal-water  bay.  There  are 
numerous  small  rivers  flowing  into  the  Pacific  and  the  Straits  of 
Juan  de  Fuca.  The  other  streams  of  Western  Washington  are 
affluents  of  the  Columbia.  The  Cowlitz  and  Klikitat  are  the 
most  important.  All  of  Western  Washington  is  well  watered. 

Eastern  Washington  includes  all  that  part  of  the  Territory 
lying  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  and  consists  of  the  Great 
Plains  of  the  Columbia  river,  the  Great  Plateau  of  the  Spokane, 
and  numerous  valleys  or  river  bottoms,  as  of  the  Columbia,  Snake 


470 


GEOLOG  K AND  MIA^ERAL  OGV. 


river,  Walla-Walla,  Clarke’s  fork,  the  Okinakane,  Wenatchee  or 
Pisquouse,  Lake  Chelann,  the  Grand  Coulee,  or  Old  Bed  of  the 
Columbia,  the  Spokane,  Colville  and  Palouse  rivers.  This  whole 
region  Is  an  elevated  plateau,  with  a rich  soil,  well  adapted  to  the 
culture  of  the  cereals,  and  one  of  the  finest  grazing  countries  In 
the  world. 

There  are  many  lakes  in  Washington,  some  of  them  of  con- 
siderable size  ; Lake  Chelann  is  the  largest,  but  Lakes  Kahchess, 
Wasliington  and  Whatcom  are  also  Important  lakes. 

Geology. — The  shores  of  the  Pacific,  the  lower  valley  of  the  • 
Columbia,  and  the  great  valley  drained  by  Puget  sound,  are 
Tertiary  and  Quaternary ; the  Islands  west  of  the  Canal  de 
Haro  in  the  Gulf  of  Georgia  are  Cretaceous ; the  vicinity  of 
Bellingham  bay  is  Carboniferous ; the  Coast  Range  is  Eozoic ; 
the  Cascade  Mountains  to  about  47°  40',  and  the  Great  Plains  of 
the  Columbia  river  in  Central  and  Eastern  Washington,  south  of 
the  Spokane  river,  are  volcanic  ; Northern  Washington  is  Eozoic, 
except  two  narrow  and  small  outcrops  of  Silurian  age  in  the 
extreme  northeast,  one  east,  the  other  west  of  Clarke’s  fork. 

Mineralogy . — Washington  has  probably  some  deposits  of  the 
precious  metals  in  the  extensive  volcanic  regions  already  noticed, 
but  they  have  not  yet  been  developed  to  any  great  extent.  Gold 
has  been  found  in  the  northeast  near  the  Columbia  river.  There 
were  discoveries  of  placer  gold  made  in  1879,  on  the  Skagit 
river  in  Whatcom  county.  Western  Washington.  The  quartz 
lodes  near  the  Columbia  river,  in  Stevens  county,  yielded  in  1879 
about  $300,000.  All  the  different  ores  of  iron  are  plentiful ; but 
the  greatest  mineral  wealth  of  the  Territory  consists  in  its  exten- 
sive beds  of  excellent  coal.  The  coal  near  Bellingham  bay  and 
Lake  Whatcom,  in  Whatcom  county,  is  of  excellent  quality  and  is 
extensively  mined.  Much  of  it  is  sent  to  San  Erancisco,  where 
it  is  in  great  demand.  This  is  a true  coal  from  the  coal  measures, 
and  is  bituminous  in  its  character.  There  is  also  a very  good 
coal  (probably  lignite)  back  of  Seattle,  in  King  county,  near  Lake 
Washington,  and  also  in  the  Coast  Range.  This  coal  is  mostly 
bituminous,  but  it  is  claimed  that  deposits  of  anthracite  coal  have 
been  found  in  Puvallup  valley  and  on  the  Green  river.  This  is 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


471 

possible,  as  this  is  within  the  limits  of  the  volcanic  region,  but  it 
is  probable  that  this  is  at  most  only  semi-anthracite. 

Zoology, — The  wild  animals  are  the  same  as  in  Oregon.  In 
the  northern  part  of  the  Territory  moose  are  found  in  consider- 
able numbers.  Elk  are  also  plenty.  The  cougar  or  panther  is 
large  and  fierce.  Game  is  abundant.  Salmon,  are  found  in  great 
numbers,  not  only  in  the  Columbia  but  in  Puget  sound,  and 
some  of  the  rivers  flowing  into  it. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Western  Washington  is  remarkably 
mild  and  temperate,  notwithstanding  its  high  latitude,  resembling, 
in  this  respect,  that  of  the  British  Isles,  and  demonstrating  the 
truth  of  the  law  laid  down  by  physical  geographers  that  the 
western  coast  of  a continent  always  has  a much  milder  and  more 
equable  temperature  than  the  eastern.  Governor  Ferry,  in  pre- 
senting, in  his  report  of  October,  1879,  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  the  meteorological  table  of  Fort  Blakeley,  which  we 
give  on  page  1 195,  makes  some  very  judicious  notes  and  explan- 
ations in  regard  to  it,  and  the  climate  of  Western  Washington, 
which  we  here  insert  in  full,  and  which  are  fully  corroborated 
by  the  corresponding  table  of  Olympia,  which  we  have  placed  by 
its  side.  One  point,  which  the  governor  has  omitted,  is  worthy 
of  notice,  viz.:  that  where  the  extreme  annual  range  of  the 
thermometer  does  not  exceed  from  64°  to  74°,  its  maximum  not 
being  over  95°  nor  its  minimum  less  than  19°  to  25°,  the  result- 
ing climate  is  as  agreeable,  healthful  and  productive  as  can  be 
desired.  The  rainfall  is  by  no  means  excessive,  but  exerts  a 
decided  influence  in  promoting  the  gigantic  growth  of  the 
timber,  which  crowns  the  mountain  slopes  and  extends  even  to 
the  summits  of  the  Cascade  and  Coast  Ranges. 

Governor  Ferry  says : 

“It  will  be  seen  that  the  lowest  temperature  during  this  period 
of  twenty-six  months  was  25°  above  zero,  in  January,  1879,  and 
the  next  lowest  26  + °,  in  January,  1878.  The  highest  temperature 
in  1877  was  88°;  in  1878,  94°;  and  in  1879,  86°.  The  highest 
monthly  average  was  67)^°,  in  July,  1877,  and  the  lowest  40^^°, 
in  January,  1878.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  annual  average 
rainfall  is  very  little  greater  than  in  the  Eastern  and  Western 


472 


CLIMATE  OF  WESTERN  WASHINGTON 


1878. 

January 

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Year 

1879. 

January 

February  

March  

April 

May 

June 

July  

1877. 

June ...  

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

H 

§ 

FORT  BLAKELEY,  Bainbridge  Island,  Kitsap  Co. 

Latitude  47°  36'.  Longitude  122°  32'  west  from  Greenwich. 

Elevation  about  36  feet. 

00  00  OOvj  Oven  cn  vO  Ln  Os  Ov  00  00  OOVO  VO  'vi  vj  OsCn 
OsOUOvOOOO  OsOOO  CS4**  tO  O Ov  0 W 

en  cn  ON  00  00  00  00 

OvvO  4-  Os  Os  CO  0 

Highest. 

1 TEMPERATURE. 

4».4fc.4*-oJOJN:K5  fo  u)OJU)-^^ai^u)eooj^^ro 

en  w 0 Os  w oou\  Ov  oeo4^w-t^oeo  o\e»j  00  w Ov 

to  CO  4k.  4ki  cn  cn  4k. 

VO  *H  to  W 0 0 cn 

Lowest. 

0\<-n  Lnen-e>.4>--t>-  ui  4>-4>-en(j\ONO\  OnUi  ui  en  4>- 

►H  oo^yi  O^enO  w MONO^weoOJ^tooenO 

4».  4>»  Cn  cn  Os  OvCn 

Oj  '*4  M VJ  U\  'Vj  VO 

Average. 

1 

tOtocn^W'Oen  0\ 

(in  0 ^ bo  (in 

en004>-00ui  (O 

OJVOKJ(jJOOO(*)N>enO(/'  0^ 

to  to  ON'jj  to.ij(j->tOMM'to(0  -i." 
.^1  .vj  M (01  0 O'  OS(^l  (J1  'O  to  00  ^ 

0O(^  4..  M 0 (^ 

4.  ^ to  n 0 cn  cn 

0 0 (41  0 0 (41 

Rainfall. 

s 

c 

g 

3 

H 

< 

' 

1 

1 ^^^4 

^^tOtOsO'vJO  VO 

M(04..0IOen'0<Ji(*J-2(000  O' 

to  to  M M M M M 

M to  00  Os  M 00 

Cloudy 

Days. 

0 

!.  ^ 

0 

(-.W^OVOlIMM  <J\ 

W-HlOtOtOtO'-'MM  M VO 

VO  vq  0 VO  Os  H Ovvj  ^ vO  CO  Cn 

0 0 VO  to  dl  0 to 

Clear 

Days. 

. C 

< 

f 

' < 

1878. 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Annual 

1879. 

January 

February  

March 

April 

May 

fc".-.-.;;.;-;:;:;;:;;;::: 

. 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

C;:v.monfVi<; 

TIME 

OLYMPIA,  Thurston  Co  , Capital  of  Territory. 

Latitude  47°  2'.  Longitude  122°  56'. 

Elevation,  36  feet. 

Osen  ^ OJ4^4^enOsOs  OsCn  -t»-  -fr- 

'•q  M 00^  OOv  ^ vO-^'^-t^KjMOenvO^-fk.M 

b 00  ^ OV  00  b fO  en  bs  b ^ ^ bn  0 4^  b m On  m m 

4..  4.  (.n  (Tc  0 

P 01  vp  cn  K)  0 

10  00  M OvCn  4k. 

Mean. 

TEMPERATURE.  | 

L . 1 

00^  Ov  Osen  VO  Ln  Cn  Os^  00  OOvO  OO'vj  Oven  Cn 

ea  Ov  Osvo  cn  4*^  00  en  4^  004*-  OOM  Mcn*^  MCn4^  tO 

(ji  tn  (31  (»  COO  Q 

VI  ^ (31  M tn  M 

Highest. 

- 

4^ojcocommm  m wc*Jweo4^^4*»coe^e»jeow 

cn  oocn  to  0 4^  VO  tg  to  OOv^  ojenM^0t0M>^ 

CO  to  to  OJ  ^ 4ik  ^ 

0 OOVO  Oseo  oj  ^ 

Lowest. 

C0C04i.C0U)0JM  VJ  COMCO4»^OJCOenCn4^COK)t0 

OOOOm^OvO'O  Co  W^OVM'O^^^COMCuM'va 

M to  OJ  4k.  4k.  0 

^ VO  'vi  cn  to  VO  ^ 

Range. 

I ^ 1 

1 

M M Ov 

K)04^tO^CnCn  OJ 

Ov4^  M 4*-  en  vb  U» 

M 4>»  K)  0 Ov^  Ov  4k. 

b b (h  00(1)  (b  to  cl)  io  vb  to  bo  i-i 
(JJ  (O  to  'J  to  004..  Ol  ►<  (J  0 to  CoJ 

1 

inches. 

1 0.24 

' 1.64 

6.64 
7.00 
19.88 
11-73 

Rainfall. 

1 

HUMIDITY.  1 

0\  OnvJ  00  00  00  VJ 

VO  VO  COUi  yi  OOU)  VO 

vb  ovb)  bou>  vb 

00  00  OOVJ  Ov  Ovvj  ^ 00  00  00  00  00  OOvj  ^ Ov  O 

v4  OOU)  vj  VO  vO  'vi  0 Os'kq  \0  VO  >4  OOOJ  4k- 

Cn  -b  vb  vb  ^ bq  ca  Ood)  ^ U)  w -b  Cn  OOvb  Oj  00  O 

Mean. 

U>U>^OJKOK)UJ  ^ 

P p VO  P 'O  VO  0 VO 

N b o b boo  b vb 

Oven  O CO  ^ ov-^  VO 

00  0 CO  0 M oven  ^ 

eoeocuMK}K>coc*j^MiOK)  toiocototocos 

ooovovovopovovovovo  vovoovpvopn 

bbb'i>'i5vbbb'i^«bvbo  vbvbbvbvbbj' 

M OOVO  00  OO'sj  KJOen^OOM  vocn-fr*  ^ 2 

00  0 M Ovvo  wcne*JVOOOOOO  mn^ooGOO.^ 

Average  ‘ 

Mean 
Pressure. 

1 

BAROMETER. 

METEOROLOGY  OF  WESTERN  WASHINGTON. 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


473 

States.  From  June,  1877,  to  January,  1879,  a period  of  nineteen 
months,  embracing  all  of  one  winter  and  half  of  another,  there 
was  no  snowfall,  and  in  January,  February  and  March,  1879, 
only  7j^  inches,  which  disappeared  almost  as  rapidly  as  it  fell. 
The  greatest  rainfall  is  between  the  months  of  October  and  April, 
although,  during  this  period,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cloudy  days 
are  very  little  in  excess  of  the  clear. 

“ The  climatic  phenomena  indicated  by  these  observations  are 
readily  accounted  for. 

“A  thermal  current,  known  as  the  Japan  Current,  having  its 
origin  at  the  equator,  near  the  one  hundred  and  thirtieth  degree 
of  east  longitude,  Greenwich,  flows  northwardly  to  the  Aleutian 
islands,  'where  it  separates,  one  branch  flowing  eastwardly  along 
the  peninsula  of  Alaska,  and  then  southwardly  along  the  coast 
of  British  Columbia,  Washington  Territory  and  Oregon.  This 
thermal  stream,  with  its  concomitant  heated  atmospheric  current, 
striking  the  northwest  coast  of  America,  operates  powerfully  in 
mitigating  a climate  which  otherwise  would  be  cold  and  rigorous 
in  the  extreme.  The  effect  of  these  currents  upon  the  western 
portion  of  this  Territory  is  the  same  as  the  effect  of  the  Gulf 
stream  upon  the  northwest  coast  of  Europe.  In  fact  the  climate 
and  natural  productions  of  England  are  essentially  the  same  as 
those  of  Western  Washington.  In  addition  to  this,  the  prevail- 
ing winds  in  the  winter  are  from  the  southwest.  These  warm 
atmospheric  currents,  coming  from  the  tropical  regions  of  the 
Pacific,  laden  with  moisture,  meeting  the  cooler  currents  from 
the  Coast  Range  and  Cascade  Mountains,  produce  the  winter 
rainfall.  These  southwest  winds  also  moderate  the  temperature 
during  the  winter. 

“The  prevailing  winds  during  the  summer  are  from  the  north- 
west, which  is  the  cause  of  the  dry,  cool  weather  during  that 
period.  There  is  a marked  difference  between  the  climate  of 
Western  and  Eastern  Washington.  In  the  latter,  being  that 
portion  of  the  country  lying  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  the 
four  seasons  are  plainly  distinguishable.  I am  unable  to  present 
meteorological  statistics  of  this  portion  of  the  Territory,  and  can 
only  say  that  the  temperature  is  lower  in  winter  and  higher  in 


474 


SOIL  AND  VEGETATION  OF  WESTERN  WASHINGTON. 


summer,  and  that  the  rainfall  is  about  one-half  less,  than  on  Puget 
sound.  The  average  annual  temperature  is  reported  as  follows : 
spring,  52°,  summer,  73°,  autumn,  53°,  and  winter,  34°.” 

The  summers  are  at  times  very  hot,  though  with  cool  nights 
generally.  A part  of  the  winter  is  cold,  and  there  are  usually  a 
few  days  in  which  the  mercury  falls  to  zero,  or  below ; but  with 
few  exceptions  the  fall  of  snow  is  not  heavy.  The  rainfall  aver- 
ages from  twenty  to  twenty-two  inches  for  the  year. 

The  “ Chinook  winds,”  already  spoken  of  under  Montana, 
periodical  warm  breezes  from  the  southwest,  blow  up  the  channel 
of  the  Columbia  river,  through  the  fall  and  winter,  and  along  the 
foot-hills  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  and  in  a few  hours  remove 
every  vestige  of  snow  in  their  path.  Their  influence  is  felt  all 
over  Eastern  Washington  and  Idaho  and  into  Montana. 

SoiV,  Vegetation  and  Agricultural  Productions. — The  soil  of 
Weste7ni  Washmgton  is  of  various  qualities,  and  may  be  divided 
into  river  bottoms,  lands  along  the  sound,  table-lands  and  moun- 
tain slopes. 

The  alluvial  farming  lands  are  subject  to  overflow,  near  the 
sound,  but  not  usually  to  an  injurious  extent.  The  freshets  gen- 
erally occur  during  the  months  of  January  and  June,  and  rarely 
last  more  than  three  or  four  days.  The  soil  is  composed  of  clay, 
sand  and  gravel — detritus  washed  from  the  mountains — mingled 
with  decayed  vegetation,  the  rank  growth  of  centuries.  Under 
cultivation  it  is  quick,  light  and  friable,  and  yields  astonishing 
crops  of  hay,  grain,  hops,  fruits  and  vegetables.  These  lands  are 
mostly  covered  with  vine-maple,  alder,  crab-apple  and  salal,  with 
an  occasional  fir,  spruce  or  cedar,  and  as  a rule  are  confined  to 
narrow  valleys  and  limited,  detached  areas.  Being  covered  with 
this  deciduous  forest  growth,  they  are  not  like  prairie  lands, 
where  the  plow  can  be  started  as  soon  as  a claim  is  staked  out — 
but  as  compared  with  the  more  heavily  timbered  uplands,  they 
are  easily  cleared — at  an  approximate  cost  of  ^ i o to  ^15  per  acre. 
The  wood  and  lumber  will  usually  pay  for  the  work  ; and,  for 
farming  purposes,  the  settler  will  find  no  more  desirable  location 
west  of  the  Cascades. 

Between  these  bottoms  and  the  mountains  are  large  areas  of 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


475 

table-lands,  quite  level  or  gently  undulating  near  the  rivers; 
broken  and  rugged  toward  the  foot-hills.  The  soil  of  these  up- 
lands is  inferior  to  that  of  the  river  lands,  varying  from  sandy- 
loam  to  clay-loam  and  unproductive  gravel.  The  growths  here 
are  principally  fir  and  cedar,  with  some  hemlock,  maple,  willow, 
cherry,  etc.  South  and  east  of  the  sound  is  a district  where 
coarse  gravel  is  found,  with  occasional  granite  boulders,  extend- 
ing back  from  the  shore  from  ten  to  thirty  miles  in  streaks  and 
patches’,  and  covering  perhaps  half  the  land.  In  the  intervals  the 
soil  is  a strong,  brown  clay-loam  of  excellent  quality  for  farming. 
Owing  to  the  durability  of  the  fir  and  cedar,  and  the  difficulty  and 
expense  of  removing  their  stumps  from  the  ground,  it  will  be  a 
considerable  time  before  the  lands  now  covered  with  these  fir 
forests  will  be  cleared  and  devoted  to  agriculture — but  fortu- 
nately the  timber  is  worth  far  more  to  its  owners  and  to  the 
country  than  the  best  open  prairie  would  be.  Considering  the 
great  diversity  of  the  soil  and  the  wooded,  broken  character  of 
the  country,  West  Washington  is  likely  to  be  a region  of  small 
farms,  devoted  to  a variety  of  crops,  rather  than  to  growing  grain 
or  stock  on  a large  scale. 

With  the  above  explanation  it  is  safe  to  say  that  in  connection 
with  the  mild  climate,  the  productive  capacity  of  the  soil  of  the 
Puget  sound  region  is  great,  both  as  to  quantity  and  quality. 
The  small  grains  are  at  home  in  Washington  Territory.  The 
quality  and  yield  of  wheat  on  the  Pacific  slope  are  well  known  to 
be  good,  and  in  this  regard  Puget  sound  basin  is  no  exception  to 
the  rule.  Much  of  the  finest  portion  of  the  grain  that  reaches 
the  Eastern  market  as  “California  wheat”  is  grown  in  Washing- 
ton Territory  and  Northern  Oregon.  All  other  cereals  are 
grown  to  perfection;  oats  are  particularly  plump  and  heavy.  In- 
dian corn  (maize)  has  been  ripened  thirteen  years  in  succession 
in  one  locality,  and  as  many  as  forty  bushels  to-  the  acre  have 
been  raised,  but  this  is  exceptional,  and  as  a rule  the  nights  are 
too  cool  for  the  ripening  of  this  crop.  Pork  is  usually  fattened 
upon  peas,  wheat  and  barley,  and  it  is  claimed  can  be  made  as 
cheaply  as  upon  corn  in  the  Western  States. 

Fruits  of  all  kinds,  except  the  peach  and  the  grape,  are  raised 


BEAVEK  DAM  LAA^DS  AND  TIMBER. 


476 

in  great  profusion,  and  are  remarkable  for  size  and  flavor.  Al- 
though California  fruit  is  justly  in  good  reputation,  Oregon  and 
Washington  apples  are  exported  to  San  Francisco,  where  they 
bring  an  advanced  price  on  account  of  their  excellence.  The 
potatoes  and  other  vegetables  grown  on  the  north  coast  are  also 
in  high  favor  in  the  San  Francisco  market. 

A resident  of  Washington,  and  one  who  has  had  extraordi- 
nary facilities  for  acquiring  personal  knowledge  of  the  lands  there, 
says : 

“ The  agricultural  lands  of  the  State,  while  generally  con- 
fined to  the  river  bottoms,  are  not  entirely  so.  It  is  frequently 
found  that  even  on  the  sides,  and  sometimes  near  the  summit  of 
a hill  or  mountain,  considerable  tracts  of  rich  beaver  dam  lands 
exist.  A noticeable  instance  is  near  the  summit  of  the  immense 
hill  immediately  in  the  rear  of  Kalama.  The  river  bottoms  of 
the  Columbia  and  its  confluent  streams,  as  well  as  the  valley  of 
the  Cowlitz,  contain  large  tracts  of  lands  of  unexcelled  fertility. 
About  midway  between  Kalama  and  Tacoma  is  the  Chehalis 
Valley,  embracing,  with  its  confluents,  over  2,000  square  miles 
of  the  best  agricultural  lands  in  the  Territory.  This  valley  is  to 
Washington  what  the  Willamette  is  to  Oregon.  It  varies  in 
width  from  five  to  fifteen  miles,  and  extends  from  the  base  of  the 
Cascade  Range  to  Gray’s  Harbor.  Large  quantities  of  rich  lands 
lie  in  the  bottoms  of  its  lower  tributaries.  Flowing  into  Puget 
sound  there  are  the  Cedar,  Nisqually  and  Puyallup  rivers,  on 
which  are  some  fine  arable  lands.  These  river  bottoms  are 
usually  sparsely  timbered  with  alder,  vine  maple,  crab  apple,  etc., 
which  are  quickly  and  easily  cleared,  at  an  expense  ranging  from 
five  to  thirty  dollars  per  acre,  and  will  then  yield,  on  an  average, 
from  forty  to  sixty  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre.  The  small  grains* 
are  produced  most  abundantly,  with  a larger  average  yield  than 
obtains  in  almost  any  other  locality  or  section  of  the  country,  and 
command  the  highest  market  price  at  home.  And  so  long  as  we 
have  the  large  non-producing  lumbering  population,  the  farmers’ 
market  will  be  at  home.” 

Timber. — At  present  the  leading  industry  of  the  Puget  sound 
region  is  the  manufacture  and  shipment  of  timber.  This  timber 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


477 


has  carried  its  own  fame  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  East 
Indies,  in  Egypt,  in  the  maritime  States  of  Europe,  in  South  Amer- 
ica, the  Pacific  Islands,  China  and  Japan,  the  fir  timber  of 
Washington  Territory  is  an  article  of  commerce. 

Washington,  to  the  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  covers 
an  area  of  about  20,000  square  miles  (exclusive  of  interior  waters), 
three-fourths  of  which  are  timbered  lands.  The  timber  consists 
of  yellow  fir,  cedar,  pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  oak,  maple,  cotton- 
wood, ash,  dogwood,  alder  and  some  of  the  smaller  varieties. 
The  amount  of  the  fir  exceeds  all  the  other  varieties  combined, 
and  the  cedar  stands  second  in  quantity.  As  the  fir  exceeds  all 
other  varieties  in  quantity,  so  also  it  does  in  utility,  being  valu- 
able for  ship-building,  house-building,  fencing,  spars,  and  indeed 
almost  every  purpose  for  which  wood  is  used. 

The  quantity  of  all  kinds  of  lumber  produced  in  the  territory, 
in  1875,  estimated  at  250,000,000  feet,  valued  at  ^3,000,000, 
and  though  the  market  for  it  was  temporarily  depressed,  the 
demand  is  now  rapidly  increasing. 

The  size  of  the  fir  trees  and  the  number  growing  on  given 
areas  in  good  timber  districts  are  almost  incredible  to  those  who 
have  not  visited  the  north  Pacific  coast.  Trees  are  not  uncom- 
mon which  measure  300  feet  in  length,  two-thirds  of  the  distance 
being  free  from  limbs.  Fifty,  sixty,  and  sometimes  eighty  good 
timber  trees  grow  upon  an  acre  of  ground.  It  is  not  seldom  that 
200,000  feet  of  merchantable  fir  lumber  is  taken  from  a single 
acre.  The  rule  with  Washington  lumbermen  has  been  to  work 
no  tract  of  (fir)  timber  producing  less  than  30,000  feet  per  acre. 

Although  lumbering  has  been  carried  on  along  the  shores  of 
the  sound  for  twenty  years,  up  to  the  present  time  logs  have  sel- 
dom been  hauled  more  than  a mile — to  the  estuaries  of  the  sound, 
or  some  convenient  stream  where  rafts  are  prepared  for  towing 
to  the  mills.'  The  main  timber  reeion  of  the  sound  and  lower 
Columbia  has  not  yet  been  invaded  by  the  ax.  Many  rivers  and 
arms  of  the  sound  extend  into  the  very  heart  of  this  vast  Forest 
Preserve,  and  by  clearing  the  river  channels  of  drift  the  spring 
freshets  can  be  availed  of  to  run  out  the  logs  to  the  mills  and 
the  lumber  to  market. 


4/8  ARABLE  LANDS  OF  EASTERN  WASHINGTON 

The  regular  correspondent  of  the  San  Francisco  Chronicle, 
writing  under  date  of  December  i8,  1879,  gives  the  following  in- 
teresting account  of  the  soil,  situation  and  productions  of  Eastern 
Washington:  Eastern  Washington  Territory  is  probably  destined 
to  become  the  richest  and  most  renowned  wheat-growing  region 
in  the  world.  The  great  body  of  its  arable  land  is  the  southern 
portion,  known  locally  as  the  Walla-Walla,  Palouse  and  Yakima 
countries,  which  have  an  unbroken  area  more  than  150  miles 
square,  extending  from  the  foot-hills  of  the  Cascade  Mountains 
eastward  to  the  Idaho  boundary  line,  and  from  the  Oregon  line 
northward  beyond  the  Great  Bend  of  the  Columbia  river.  But 
Eastern  Washington  in  its  entirety  is  distinctively  an  agricultural 
region  of  great  fertility  ; for,  in  addition  to  its  vast  scope  of  rolling 
prairies  and  plains  in  the  southern  and  middle  sections,  there  are 
in  its  more  northerly  portion,  and  extending  as  far  as  to  the  British 
possessions,  numerous  rich  and  well-watered  valleys,  such  as  the 
Chemakane  and  Colville  Valleys,  the  latter  of  long-standing  fame. 
Eastern  Washington  has  been  described  as  the  “valley  of  the 
Columbia  river  in  Washington  Territory,  lying  east  of  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains.”  The  appropriateness  of  this  description  will 
readily  appear  by  an  examination  of  the  map,  showing  the  courses 
of  this  river  and  its  numerous  tributaries.  Here  the  climate  is 
most-  favorable  to  health,  the  soil  yields  the  largest  average  re- 
turn of  wheat,  drought  is  unknown,  the  crops  never  fail,  and  the 
ultimate  capacity  for  production  of  cereals  of  the  highest  grade 
has  been  estimated  by  good  judges  as  high  as  150,000,000 
bushels  per  annum. 

The  Yakima  country  is  in  the  southern  central  portion  of  the 

country  between  the  Cascade  Mountains  on  the  west  and  the 

Columbia  river  on  the  east,  and  embraces  the  northern  half  of 

Klickitat  and  all  of  Yakima  counties.  It  is  traversed  by  a river 

of  the  same  name,  which,  rising  in  the  northern  central  portion 

of  the  Territory,  flows  southeastward,  and  empties  into  the 

Columbia  a short  distance  from  Ainsworth,  at  the  mouth  of  the 

Snake  river,  the  present  western  terminus  of  the  Pend  d’Oreille 

division  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad.  The  fertility  of  the 

Yakima  country  is  declared  to  be  not  inferior  to  that  of  any  other 
76 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


479 


part  of  this  great  wheat-field,  not  even  excepting  the  Walla-Walla 
valley,  farther  east.  The  projected  line  of  the  Northern  Pacific 
Railroad  from  the  Columbia  river  at  Ainsworth,  across  the 
mountains  to  Puget  sound  at  Tacoma,  passes  through  the  heart 
of  this  region  ; and  the  construction  of  a road  over  it  is  all  that 
is  needed  to  fill  up  the  country  speedily  with  a teeming  popula- 
tion. It  is  yet  sparsely  settled,  but  new-comers  in  their  prairie- 
schooners  are  fast  encroaching  upon  its  unoccupied  lands.  Its 
climate  and  soil  are  admirably  adapted  for  stock-raising,  which 
is  the  chief  occupation  of  its  inhabitants.  The  food  for  cattle  is 
a very  rich,  nutritious  bunch-grass,  almost  as  strong  as  grain, 
with  which  the  prairies  and  hills  are  covered  throughout  all 
seasons  of  the  year ; and  as  the  winters,  with  rare  exceptions, 
are  mild  and  dry,  there  is  no  need  of  housing  and  feeding  the 
cattle,  but  they  are  without  fear  suffered  to  roam  at  Vv^ill  in  the 
winter  months,  and  grow  fat  on  this  remarkable  grass.  This 
bunch-grass  is  common  all  over  that  country,  covering  the  foot- 
hills and  plains  alike,  and  sometimes  even  reaching  to  the  moun- 
tain-tops. 

J.  Ross  Browne,  in  an  official  report,  says,  “ For  grazing,  these 
table-lands  and  side-hills  of  Eastern  Washington  cannot  be  ex- 
celled. They  are  covered  with  a luxuriant  growth  of  native  bunch- 
grass,  of  nutritious  quality.  During  the  rains  of  spring  it  seems 
to  attain  its  growth  ; and  through  the  dry  season  which  follows, 
it  stands  to  be  cured  into  the  best  of  hay,  preserving  its  strength 
and  esculent  properties  all  winter.  Stock  abandon  the  green 
grass  of  the  bottom-lands  to  feed  upon  it,  and  on  it  they  keep 
fat  the  year  round.”  The  Yakima  country  produces  the  cattle 
for  supplying  the  market  on  Puget  sound  and  elsewhere  in 
Western  Washington,  as  well  as  in  British  Columbia,  whither 
they  are  driven  through  the  several  passes  in  the  mountains ; 
and  large  droves  of  exceptionally  fat  cattle  go  annually  out  to 
the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  and  are  transported  to  Chicago. 
Such  is  the  great  value  of  this  region  for  stock-rai^ng ; but,  as 
the  soil  is  of  a character  and  productiveness  that  invite  the  change, 
the  cattle-range  on  the  lowlands  must  give  way  before  the  more 
profitable  wheat-field,  and  confine  itself  higher  up  on  the  foot- 


THE  WALLA-WALLA  VALLEY. 


480 

hills  and  mountain-sides.  To  the  limited  extent  to  which  the 
Yakima  country  has  gone  in  wheat-raising,  it  may  safely  chal- 
lenge the  best  record  of  Illinois,  Ohio,  or  any  of  the  other  East- 
ern or  Middle  States ; for  it  has  performed  some  wonderful  feats, 
as  well  as  to  quality  and  size  of  grain,  as  to  the  amount  of  yield 
per  acre.  The  railroad  only  is  needed.  Even  thus  early  in  the 
agricultural  history  of  Eastern  Washington,  it  is  to  be  recorded 
that  the  last  crop  was  of  such  dimensions  as  to  defy  the  present 
facilities  for  moving  it  to  market ; the  approach  of  cold  weather 
and  low  water  in  the  river,  finding  still  on  hand,  in  the  store- 
houses at  Wallula,  a large  residue  of  20,000  tons — the  year’s 
production,  there  to  remain  until  the  opening  of  spring.  This 
fact  is  a very  persuasive  appeal  for  the  building  of  a railroad  to 
Pu^et  sound. 

Passing  eastward  from  the  Yakima  across  the  Columbia,  we 
enter  the  already  famous  Walla-Walla  Valley,  which  is  bounded 
on  the  south  and  east  by  the  Blue  Mountains,  and  on  the  west 
and  north  by  the  Columbia  and  Snake  rivers.  Its  area  runs  into 
millions  of  acres,  as  does  that  of  the  Palouse  country  to  the  north 
of  Snake  river,  watered  by  the  Palouse  river,  and  extending  far 
northward  to  the  Spokane.  The  Walla-Walla  and  Palouse  coun- 
tries are  being  rapidly  settled  by  people  from  all  parts  of  the 
United  States.  These  two  regions  of  Southeastern  Washington 
do  not  materially  differ  in  their  general  character ; so  little,  in- 
deed, that  a description  of  the  soil,  products,  and  climate  of  one, 
may  answer  for  all  three.  The  soil  is  of  an  appearance  likely  to 
surprise  the  average  wheat-grower,  being,  except  in  the  bottom- 
lands, a very  light-colored  loam,  containing  an  unusually  large 
percentage  of  the  alkalies  and  fixed  acids,  and  covering  prac- 
tically the  whole  of  Eastern  Washington  to  a depth  of  from  one 
to  twenty  feet.  Near  the  base  of  the  mountains  it  is  mixed  with 
a larger  proportion  of  clay,  which  renders  it  somewhat  darker  in 
appearance  ; but  in  no  respect  does  it  resemble  the  black  soils 
of  the  Mississippi  valley.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  features 
of  this  country  is,  that  the  soil  on  the  tops  of  high  hills  yields  as 
many  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre,  as  does  that  of  the  lowlands 
or  prairies.  This  fact  is  sought  to  be  explained  by  the  theory, 


OUR  WES  TER  A EA/RIRE. 


481 

that  this  soil  on  both  hill  and  plain  was  once  the  bed  of  a system 
of  lakes,  and  was  greatly  enriched  by  volcanic  ashes  blown  from 
the  Cascade  Range,  or  thence  carried  by  the  streams  into  the 
lakes,  and  thus  widely  distributed  over  the  entire  basin,  including 
the  hills  in  question,  which  are  supposed  to  have  been  under 
water.  In  the  Walla-Walla  and  Palouse  countries,  towns  are 
springing  up  in  all  directions — mere  trading-camps  at  the  outset 
for  the  farmers  who  are  crowding  in  round  about ; and  the  hurry 
and  flurry  of  settlement,  and  bustle  and  haste  of  preparation  for 
wheat-raising,  lends  to  some  of  the  settlements  an  appearance 
resembling  that  of  a mining-camp  hastily  pitched  together,  with 
many  of  the  incidents  common  to  the  latter.  The  Palouse  coun- 
try is  traversed  about  through  its  centre  by  the  Northern  Pacific 
Railroad,  Pend  d’Oreille  division,  and  extends  from  the  Columbia 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Snake,  northeast  to  Spokane  falls,  about  a 
hundred  and  fifty  miles.  To  Dr.  Bingham  is  credited  the  dis- 
covery that  this  was  valuable  agricultural  land.  Although  it  was- 
subject  to  entry  at  a dollar  and  a quarter  per  acre,  no  one  thought 
it  worth  taking,  until  the  doctor  got  an  idea  to  experiment.  He 
planted  twelve  acres  in  alfalfa ; and,  to  the  amazement  of  himself 
and  neighbors,  it  grew  more  profusely  and  to  a greater  height 
than  they  had  ever  before  known  it  to  grow.  Elated  at  this 
splendid  success  of  his  experiment,  he  at  once  set  about  procur- 
ing all  the  land  he  was  able  to  buy,  and  is  now  said  to  be  one  of 
the  most  prosperous  planters  in  the  northwest.  He  tried  wheat 
with  a like  brilliant  result,  securing  an  average  yield  per  acre 
that  paid  for  the  land  over  and  over  again  ; and  thus  suddenly 
the  good  people  of  that  region  were  awakened  to  the  astounding 
revelation  that  their  vast  expanse  of  country  known  as  the  Plains 
of  the  Columbia,  and,  indeed,  the  whole  of  Southeastern  Wash- 
ington, instead  of  being,  as  it  had  always  been  regarded,  an  almost 
useless  waste,  had  a wealth-producing  capacity  far  exceeding  that 
of  all  the  gold  and  silver  mines  of  California  and  Nevada.  Im- 
mediately scores  and  hundreds  of  people  jumped  into  the  business 
of  wheat-raising;  and  the  fame  thereof  went  abroad,  starting 
westward  and  northward  large  numbers  of  farming  people,  some 
going  through  California  and  by  sea,  but  a larger  proportion 


YIELD  OF  WHEAT  IN  WASHINGTON  TERRITORY. 


4^.2 

arriving  from  surrounding  Territories  in  their  prairie-schooners 
drawn  by  oxen.  The  experience  of  Dr.  Blalock  near  Walla- 
Walla  illustrates  what  may  be  done  in  the  way  of  farming  in 
Washington  Territory.  He  began  comparatively  poor  a few 
years  back,  and  has  now  the  largest  farm  in  the  Territory.  He 
has  one  large  field  of  nearly  two  thousand  acres,  which  was  partly 
in  wheat  and  partly  in  barley  during  the  season  just  closed,  and 
the  average  yield  per  acre  is  reported  to  have  been  forty  bushels. 
At  the  last  harvest,  it  was  not  regarded  as  extraordinary  for 
particular  fields  to  yield  an  average  as  high  as  fortyTve  and  fifty 
and  even  sixty  bushels  to  the  acre. 

Of  the  enormous  average  yield  of  wheat  on  these  “ Great 
Columbia  Plains,”  Mr.  Philip  Ritz,  for  fifteen  years  a farmer  in 
the  Walla- Walla  valley,  wrote  in  1869 : “I  have  seen  large  fields 
of  wheat  average  fifty-six  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  weigh  sixty- 
two  pounds  per  bushel ; and  have  seen  fields  which  yielded  forty 
to  fifty  bushels  per  acre  from  a volunteer  crop;  that  is,  produced 
the  second  year  from  grains  scattered  out  during  harvest,  sprout- 
ing during  the  fall  and  growing  even  without  harrowing.” 

Historical  Data. — The  region  about  Puget  sound  was  a favorite 
resort  of  the  Indian  tribes  for  centuries.  Both  the  hunting  and 
fishing  were  such  as  to  render  the  regular  supply  of  food  easy 
and  certain.  In  1840  there  were  25,000  Indians  who  claimed 
Puget  sound  as  their  home.  The  number  in  the  whole  Territory 
is  now  but  a little  more  than  half  as  many,  and  the  greater  part 
of  these  are  now  domiciled  along  the  upper  Columbia  river.  As 
we  have  already  said  under  Oregon,  the  Straits  of  San  Juan  de 
Fuca  were  first  entered  by  a Greek  navigator  of  that  name  in 
the  Spanish  service,  in  1592  ; the  coast  was  revisited  in  1775  by 
Heceta,  a Spanish  navigator,  and  in  1787  and  1788  two  English 
captains,  Berkeley  and  Meares,  successively  entered  the  straits, 
and  the  latter  revived  the  name  of  the  old  Greek  discoverer.  The 
priority  of  discovery  of  the  coast  and  the  straits  certainly  lay  with 
the  Spanish.  In  1789  an  American,  Captain  Robert  Gray,  in  the 
sloop  “Washington,”  discovered  and  entered  several  of  the 
smaller  bays  and  harbors  along  the  coast,  both  in  the  Straits  of 
San  Juan  de  Fuca  and  below;  and  in  1790  Captain  Kendrick,  in 


ms  TO  A' /CAL  DATA. 


483 

the  same  vessel,  passed  through  the  entire  length  of  the  Straits 
of  San  Juan  de  Fuca.  In  1791  Captain  Gray  returned  to  the 
coast,  and  discovered  and  explored  and  gave  his  name  to  Gray’s 
Harbor.  It  was  in  this  same  year  also  that  he  discovered  and 
ascended  the  Columbia  river  about  thirty  miles.  In  1805  Lewis 
and  Clarke  reached  and  explored  the  coast  from  the  land  side, 
having  crossed  the  continent  for  that  purpose.  Meanwhile  the 
title  of  the  United  States  to  the  whole  region  watered  by  the  Co- 
lumbia river  was  further  fortified  by  the  settlement  of  Astoria,  at 
the  mouth  of  that  river,  by  Mr.  J.  J.  Astor,  in  181 1,  and  the  title 
was  perfected  as  against  any  European  power  by  the  treaty  of 
Florida  with  Spain  in  1819,  which  expressly  ceded  to  the  United 
States  all  the  rights,  claims  and  pretensions  of  the  King  of  Spain 
to  any  Territory  north  of  the  forty-second  parallel  of  north  lati- 
tude. The  Hudson’s  Bay  Company  attempted  to  take  possession 
of  it  between  1825  and  1830,  and  from  1828  to  1841  it  was  held 
•in  joint  occupancy  by  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  with- 
out prejudice  to  the  title  of  either.  The  Ashburton  Treaty  of 
1845  finally  settled  the  right  of  the  United  States  to  the  Territory 
up  to  the  line  of  49°  north  latitude,  except  at  the  Straits  of  San 
Juan  de  Fuca  and  the  Gulf  of  Georgia.  It  was  understood  by 
that  treaty  that  the  American  title  took  to  the  middle  of  the  chan- 
nel of  those  waters  ; but  as  there  were  several  channels  and  some 
valuable  islands  in  controversy,  the  matter  was  definitely  and 
finally  settled  by  arbitration  in  1873,  the  Emperor  of  Germany 
being  arbiter.  American  settlers  began  to  come  into  the  Terri- 
tory in  1845.  It  was  originally  a part  of  Oregon  Territory,  but 
was  organized  as  a separate  Territory  in  1853,  and  had  a severe 
Indian  war  in  1855.  From  1859  to  1863  it  included  most  of 
Idaho  Territory,  but  since  that  time  it  has  had  its  present  bound- 
aries. 

CHAPTER  XXL 
WYOMIL/G, 

Wyoming  lies  between  the  41st  and  45th  parallels  of  north 
latitude,  and  the  104th  and  iiith  meridians  of  west  longitude 
from  Greenwich.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Montana,  on 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


484 

the  east  by  Dakota  and  Nebraska,  including  in  the  northeast  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  Black  Hills  region ; on  the  south  by 
Colorado  and  Utah ; and  on  the  west  by  Utah,  Idaho  and 
Montana.  Its  length  from  east  to  west  is  335  miles,  its  width 
from  north  to  south  is  276  miles.  It  is  a perfect  parallelogram, 
all  its  boundaries  being  astronomico-geographical  lines.  Its  area . 
is  97,883  squares  miles,  or  62,645,120  acres,  of  which,  up  to  June, 
1879,  only  about  one-seventh  had  been  surveyed. 

Topography. — The  main. divide  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which, 
after  traversing  Northwestern  Montana,  turned  suddenly  south- 
westward  and  formed  the  southeast  boundary  of  Idaho,  separates 
again  into  two  chains  at  the  Yellowstone  park,  and  enters  Wyom- 
ing from  the  northwest  in  two  distinct  and  nearly  parallel  ranges,, 
the  easternmost  being  known  as  the  Shoshone  range,  and  the 
westernmost  as  the  Wind  River  range.  Near  the  forty-third 
parallel,  the  Big  Horn  Mountains,  a somewhat  lower  range  from 
the  north-northeast,  meets  them  almost  at  a right  angle,  and  from 
this  point  to  the  Colorado  line  both  ranges  break  into  a number 
of  mountain  groups  extending  in  all  directions,  and  rendering  it 
difficult  to  define  which  has  the  best  right  to  the  name  of  the 
main  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Among  the  groups  of  this 
confused  mountain  mass  may  be  named,  beside  the  Big  Horn 
range  already  mentioned,  the  Owl  Creek  Mountains,  a spur  of 
the  Shoshone  range,  the  Rattlesnake  Mountains,  and  the  Laramie 
Mountains,  still  farther  east ; the  Sweet-Water  and  the  Seminole 
Mountains,  which  seem  to  be  continuations  of  the  Wind  River 
range.  Near  the  forty-second  parallel  these  mountain  ranges 
subside  into  an  elevated  plateau  from  8,000  to  9,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  with  occasional  elevated  summits,  rising  again  to  higher 
elevations  on  either  side  of  the  North  Park  in  Colorado.  This 
elevated  plateau  extends  westward  and  southwestward  to  the 
foot-hills  of  the  Bear  River  range  on  the  west,  and  the  Uintah 
Mountains  on  the  south,  both  in  Utah  Territory.  In  the  south- 
east there  are  the  Medicine  Bow  Mountains,  and  some  isolated 
peaks,  like  Laramie  Peak,  Iron  Mountain,  the  Red  Buttes,  etc.; 
and  in  the  northwest  the  Heart  Mountains  and  the  isolated  peaks 
of  the  Yellowstone  Park.  In  the  northeast,  east  of  the  Big  Horn 


MO  UN '/'A  I NS,  RIVERS  AND  LARES. 


485 

and  north  of  the  Laramie  Mountains,  there  is  an  extended  plateau 
of  4,000  to  7,000  feet  elevation,  rising  at  the  east  into  the  Black 
Hills,  and  in  the  northeast  and  north  to  the  Powder  River  range 
and  the  Wolf  Mountains. 

The  highest  elevation  in  the  State  is  probably  Snow’s 
Peak,  in  the  Wind  River  Range,  which  is  reported  as  13,570 
feet;  the  next  is  Gilbert’s  Peak,  13,250;  Cloud  Peak  probably 
exceeds  13,000;  and  Lake  Carpenter,  in  the  Big  Horn  Moun- 
tains, is  11,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  average  elevation  of 
Yellowstone  Park  is  7,403  feet.  The  highest  summit  in  the 
Wyoming  portion  of  the  Black  Hills  is  Harney’s  Peak,  7,700 
feet,  while  Red  Buttes,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  Territory, 
is  7,336  feet,  and  Laramie  City,  7,123  feet.  Laramie  Peak  is 
10,000  feet  and  possibly  a little  more. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — No  State  or  Territory  of  “Our  Western 
Empire,”  or  of  the  United  States,  is  drained  by  streams  which 
find  their  way  to  such  widely  separated  seas,  as  Wyoming.  In 
the  northwest  and  west  the  Shoshone  lake  and  its  outlet  through 
Jackson  lake,  the  Gros  Ventres  creek,  and  the  John  Gray  river, 
are  all  tributaries  to  the  Lewis  fork  of  Snake  river,  itself  one  of 
the  constituents  of  the  Columbia  river,  and  these  waters  find 
their  way  to  the  Pacific  by  that  route.  In  the  southwest  Bear 
river  traverses  Uintah  county  for  fifty  miles,  and,  flowing  north-, 
northwest  around  the  range  of  the  same  name,  turns  suddenly 
south  and  discharges  its  waters  into  the  Great  Salt  lake  of  the 
Utah  Basin.  Far  up  in  the  Wind  River  range  the  Green  river 
has  its  sources,  and  receiving  ten  or  a dozen  affluents,  flows 
southward  through  Northwestern  Colorado  and  Eastern  Utah  to 
its  junction  with  the  Grand  river,  with  which  it  forms  the  Rio 
Colorado  of  the  West,  and  discharges  its  waters  into  the  Gulf  of 
California.  In  the  northwest  of  the  Territory  we  find  the  Madi- 
son and  Gallatin,  two  of  the  sources  of  the  Missouri,  both  rising 
in  the  Yellowkone  National  Park;  the  Yellowstone  river,  the 
lai?gest  tributary  of  the  Missouri,  rising  in  the  Wind  River  Moun- 
tains, and  traversing  Yellowstone  National  Park  and  the  Yellow- 
stone lake ; East  fork,  Clarke’s  fork,  the  Big  Horn  river  and 
its  numerous  branches ; the  Tongue  river,  the  Powder  river  and 


OUK  WESTERN  EMPIRE, 


486 

its  tributaries,  all  affluents  of  the  Yellowstone;  while  the  Little 
Missouri,  the  North  fork  or  Belle  Fourche  river,  and  the  Big 
Cheyenne  with  its  forks  and  branches ; the  Eau  qui  Court  or 
Niobrara  and  the  North  fork  of  the  Platte  river,  which  traverses 
half  the  Territory,  are  all  affluents  of  the  Missouri  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Yellowstone,  watering  the  northern,  eastern  and 
southeastern  portions  of  the  territory.  All  of  these  carry  their 
waters  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

There  are  two  lakes  of  considerable  size,  Yellowstone  and 
Shoshone,  in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  and  several  of 
somewhat  smaller  dimensions,  in  the  southern  and  central  por- 
tions of  the  Territory. 

Geology  and  Mineralogy. — The  crests,  and,  indeed,  the  bulk 
of  the  mountain  masses  of  all  the  ranges  of  the  territory  are 
eozoic,  being  composed  mainly  of  red  feldspathic  granite  and 
syenite  and  gneiss,  while  the  lower  slopes  are  silurian,  forming 
narrow  belts  around  the  higher  mountain  slopes.  To  these  suc- 
ceed the  more  distinctly  fossiliferous  formations,  Devonian,  car- 
boniferous, triassic,  Jurassic  and  cretaceous  rocks,  succeeding 
each  other  in  regular  order.  Between  the  Big  Horn  and  Wind 
River  Ranges,  the  plateau  is  mainly  carboniferous,  triassic  and 
Jurassic,  with  a small  tract  of  cretaceous  groups  in  the  centre. 
The  elevated  plains  are  mostly  cretaceous,  but  overlaid  with  ter- 
tiary sands,  gravel  and  drift,  with  occasionally  extensive  deposits 
of  lignite  or  brown  coal.  The  coal  beds  along  and  near  the 
Union  Pacific  Railway,  near  Evanston,  at  Rockspring,  from  Point 
of  Rocks  to  Table  Rock,  at  Carbon  Station,  and,  indeed,  all  along 
that  road,  are  probably  lignite,  as  they  occur  in  tertiary  deposits, 
but  they  differ  in  appearance  and  quality  from  the  European  lig- 
nites, containing  from  fifty  to  seventy-six  per  cent,  of  fixed  carbon, 
and  are  equal  to  most  of  the  best  bituminous  coals  for  all  pur- 
poses of  combustion.  Some  of  them  are  true  coking  coals.  They 
are  used  not  only  on  the  Union  and  Central  Pacific  Railways,  but 
in  the  villages  and  towns  on  the  line  of  those  roads  between 
Omaha  and  San  Erancisco.  Recently  the  coal  of  Utah  and  Col- 
orado has  come  in  competition  with  them,  and  that  of  New  Mexico 
will  do  so.  The  consumption  of  Wyoming  coal  in  1876  was 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALOGY  OF  WYOMING.  487 

524,000  tons,  and  has  since  largely  increased.  But  if  these  coal 
beds  in  Southern  Wyoming  are  lignite,  there  is  undoubtedly  an 
abundance  of  true  coal,  from  the  coal  measures  of  the  carbonif- 
erous era,  on  the  North  fork  of  Platte  river,  above  and  below  Fort 
Fetterman,  at  the  head  waters,  and,  indeed,  along  the  whole  line 
of  Powder  river,  on  the  North  fork  or  Belle  Fourche  river,  and 
on  the  Big  Cheyenne.  There  is  also  reason  to  believe  that  it 
will  be  found  on  the  plateau  between  the  Wind  river  and  Big 
Horn  Mountains. 

At  numerous  points  throughout  the  country  there  have  been 
found  petroleum  springs,  and  wells  have  been  sunk  which  have 
proved  moderately  profitable.  These  springs  have  been  found 
on  the  Bear  river,  in  the  extreme  southwest  of  the  Territory,  at 
several  points  on  the  North  fork  of  Platte  river,  particularly  near 
South  Pass  City,  and  near  Fort  Casper,  and  on  the  branches  of 
the  Big  Cheyenne.  The  petroleum  springs,  near  South  Pass 
City,  are  said  to  yield  a very  large  supply,  and  are  adding  mate- 
rially to  the  freight  receipts  of  the  Union  Pacific. 

The  precious  metals  are  found  at  many  points  in  the  State, 
gold  predominating,  either  in  placers  or  in  quartz  veins  in  most 
cases,  though  in  a few  instances  silver  and  gold  occur  together. 
On  Crow  creek,  twenty  miles  west  of  Cheyenne,  in  the  Seminole 
Mountains,  and  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Big  Horn  Mountains, 
and  at  some  other  points,  silver  (argentiferous  galena)  has  been 
discovered  in  proximity  to  the  gold.  In  the  Bear  Lodge  Range, 
in  the  Black  Hills,  at  Inyan  Kara  and  other  points  in  that  region, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Laramie  Peak,  directly  north  of  the  North  Park 
in  Colorado,  in  the  Sweet  Water  Mountains,  on  the  Wind  river, 
and  at  the  sources  of  Crazy  Woman’s  fork,  quartz  mines,  yielding 
fair  amounts  of  gold,  as  well  as  rich  placers,  have  been  found. 
Doubtless  these  deposits  are  not  as  rich  nor  as  actively  worked 
as  those  of  some  of  the  other  States  and  Territories  adjacent ; 
for  all  of  the  mining  enterprises  of  Wyoming  have  been  but  lan- 
guidly pushed,  either  from  the  want  of  men,  of  means,  of  water, 
or  of  yield  sufficient  to  stimulate  active  enterprise.  The  whole 
gold  and  silver  production  of  Wyoming,  which  was  known  to 
have  been  deposited  in  the  mints  and  assay  offices  of  the  United 
77 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


488 

States  from  the-first  discovery  of  gold  and  silver  there  to  June 
30,  1890,  was  but  $805,910.12.  Doubtless  considerable  amounts 
were  sent  through  other  States  and  Territories,  and  some  was 
not  deposited;  but  even  if  we  allow  as  much  more  for  these  con- 
tingencies, the  amount  would  be  but  little  more  than  ^125,000 
per  year. 

Of  other  metals  and  minerals,  several  ores  of  iron,  particularly 
haematite,  magnetic  oxide,  and  red  oxide  of  superior  quality,  occur 
in  immense  quantities.  The  red  oxide,  at  Rawlins’  Springs,  is 
used  for  making  a mineral  paint  of  great  excellence.  Copper 
and  lead  are  found  in  paying  quantities,  but  are  not  as  yet  de- 
veloped. Near  Laramie  City  are  a cluster  of  lakes  which  yield 
a pure  sulphate  of  soda,  many  feet  in  thickness ; and  about  sixty 
miles  north  of  Rawlins  are  two  soda  lakes,  estimated  to  contain 
I 25,000  tons  of  carbonate  of  soda  of  great  purity.  There  are 
also  soda  springs  near  Fort  Bridger  and  at  other  points  in  the 
Territory. 

Sulphur  deposits  and  sulphurous  springs  occur  at  many  points. 
Wyoming  claims  that  she  has  the  finest  beds  of  statuary  marble 
in  the  United  States,  twenty-five  miles  north  of  Laramie,  and 
easily  accessible  by  way  of  Cooper  Lake  Station,  on  the  Union 
Pacific  Railway. 

Forests,  Soil  and  Vegetation. — The  explorations  of  Professor 
Hayden  and  his  party,  and  those  of  still  later  surveyors  and  ex- 
plorers, justify  the  estimate  that  there  are  not  less  than  6,000,000 
acres  of  arable  lands,  and  that  the  grazing  lands  are  not  far 
from  35,000,000  acres.  Most  of  the  arable  lands  require  irrigation 
for  successful  cultivation,  but  this  is  easily  obtainable  in  all  the 
lands  fit  for  cultivation  ; and  under  its  influence,  even  the  alkaline 
and  sage  brush  lands  yield  bountiful  crops. 

The  grazing  lands  are  very  generally  covered  with  buffalo 
grass,  and  even  the  desert  lands  have  an  abundance  of  the  white 
sage  brush,  which,  after  it  is  touched  with  the  frost,  is  preferred 
by  cattle  to  almost  any  other  food.  The  mountains  are  clothed 
with  a thick  growth  of  pine,  spruce  and  hemlock  trees,  of  large 
size ; the  foot-hills  have  some  pine,  spruce,  aspen,  walnut,  elm, 
ash,  box-elder,  hackberry,  and  red  cedar  of  smaller  growth,  while 


ZOOLOGY  AND  CLIMATP:. 


489 

the  river  bottoms  are  abundantly  supplied  with  two  species  of 
cottonwood  and  thickets  of  willows.  There  are  considerable 
tracts  of  alkaline  lands  among  them.  The  United  States  Ex- 
ploring Expedition,  under  Professor  Hayden,  described  and 
named  195  species  of  plants,  many  of  them  peculiar  to  the 
State.  > 

Zoology. — The  wild  animals  of  Wyoming  are  : the  grizzly  bear 
(not  very  common),  black  bear,  gray  wolf,  prairie  wolf,  or  coyote, 
badger,  wolverine,  otter,  fisher,  porcupine,  mink,  skunk,  little 
ermine,  buffalo,  elk  (more  abundant  in  Wyoming  and  Colorado 
than  anywhere  else  in  the  West),  mule,  or  black-tailed  deer,  the 
- common  deer,  big  horn,  or  mountain  sheep,  prong  horn  antelope, 
the  Rocky  Mountain  goat,  or  goat  antelope,  four  species  of  hare 
or  rabbits,  four  of  squirrels,  two  of  prairie  dogs,  gopher,  muskrat, 
two  species  of  mouse,  etc.  In  all,  more  than  thirty  species  of 
mammals  have  been  described  in  the  country,  and  124  species 
of  birds,  including  twelve  or  thirteen  birds  of  prey ; many  game 
birds,  including  a dozen  or  more  of  the  duck  and  teal  family,  six 
species  of  grouse,  ptarmigan,  etc.,  and  a large  number  of  song 
birds ; there  are  more  than  eighty  species  of  mollusks.  Reptiles 
are  not  numerous.  Trout  are  abundant  in  the  mountain  streams, 
and  other  fresh  water  food  fishes  are  plentiful. 

Climate, — The  average  mean  temperature  of  the  whole  Terri- 
tory is  about  44°  Eahrenheit.  In  the  mountains  it  is,  in  some  years 
as  low  as  36°,  while  on  the  plains  in  the  east  it  averages  45°  to 
46°,  and  in  the  Green  river  region,  in  the  southwest,  it  is  about 
42°.  The  summers  are,  for  the  most  part,  cool  and  comfortable, 
though  in  some  years  the  temperature  rises  to  103°  in  the  hottest 
part  of  the  day.  The  nights  are  cool.  The  cold  of  winter  is  at 
times  intense,  the  winds  and  snow  sweeping  over  the  vast  plains 
with  almost  irresistible  fury.  The  “blizzard”  is  a painfully  fami- 
liar term  in  the  winter  months.  The  mercury  falls  from  15°  to 
25°  below  zero.  Stock  requires  to  be  sheltered  for  two  or  three 
months,  though  stock-raisers  too  often  neglect  this,  to  their  great 
loss.  The  annual  rainfall  ranges  from  8 to  13.5  inches,  and  it  is 
an  objection,  though  not  an  insuperable  one,  to  the  settlement  of 
the  Territory. 


490 


HISTORICAL  NOTES  ON  WYOMING. 


Objects  of  Interest. — There  are  many  of  these  in  the  State, 
some  the  results  of  erosion,  others  of  volcanic  action,  and  others 
still  of  subterraneous  convulsions  and  chemical  action  in  the  great 
laboratory  of  nature.  But  the  greatest  wonder  of  all — rather  the 
greatest  collection  of  wonders — the  Yellowstone  National  Park — 
deserves  and  shall  have  a consideration  more  full  than  can  be 
given  to  it  in  a single  paragraph,  for  it  is  unrivalled  in  the  variety 
and  grandeur  of  its  attractions  by  any  other  known  tract  of  the 
earth’s  surface.  But  before  proceeding  to  portray  as  vividly  as 
we  may  this  wonderland  in  the  heart  of  the  continent,  we  must 
give  a little  space  to  the  early  history  of  this  Territory  and  its 
natural  wonders. 

Historical  Notes. — Wyoming  Territory,  and  especially  the  Big 
Horn  region  and  the  country  about  Yellowstone  lake  and  the 
sources  of  the  Yellowstone,  was  probably  known  to  the  Spanish 
adventurers  of  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  That 
they  were  cut  off  by  the  Indians  some  time  between  1650  and 
1 680  is  a matter  of  tradition  among  the  Mexican  priests.  More 
than  a century  later  (in  1781),  an  expedition,  accompanied  by 
Jesuit  missionaries,  set  out  for  this  region  from  Santa  Fe,  but  did 
not  return.  In  1866  the  remains  of  an  old  Spanish  arastra — a 
contrivance  for  crushing  quartz,  which  has  been  often  de- 
scribed— was  found  near  Lake  de  Smet,  in  the  Big  Horn  Moun- 
tains, and  subsequently  other  Spanish  ruins  of  houses  and 
fortifications  were  found  in  the  same  vicinity.  The  more  recent 
discoveries  in  Wyoming  are  due  mainly  to  two  men.  Father  Peter 
John  de  Smet,  a Jesuit  priest  and  missionary,  who  visited  and 
explored  much  of  the  Territory  in  1838  and  1839,  and  Captain 
James  Bridger,  who,  with  his  partner,  Vasquez,  built  a trading 
fort  near  the  present  site  of  Fort  Laramie.  There  had  been,, 
however,  a fur-trading  post  established  in  that  vicinity  as  early 
as  1834,  and  rebuilt  by  the  American  Fur  Company  in  1836. 
Captain  Bridger  says,  with  the  Western  habit  of  humorous  exag- 
geration, that  he  was  there  when  Laramie  Peak  hadn’t  begun  to 
grow,  and  was  a hole  in  the  ground  (Laramie  Peak  being  now 
10,000  feet  above  the  sea),  but  he  probably  does  not  much  ante- 
date 1839.  Fort  Bridger  was  held  by  Messrs.  Bridger  and  Vas- 


OUR  WESJ'ERN  EMPIRE. 


491 


quez  till  1854,  when  they  sold  it  to  the  Mormons,  who  burned  it 
in  1857,  but  it  was  rebuilt  by  the  United  States  in  1858.  Several 
forts  and  camps,  six  in  all,  have  since  been  built  for  the  protection 
of  the  Union  Pacific  Railway  and  the  mining  settlements.  The 
Territory  was  organized  by  Act  of  Congress,  approved  July  25, 
1868.  Its  growth  has  been  slow,  partly  because  the  Indians  were 
troublesome,  and  partly  because  the  land  was  not  as  easily  or 
successfully  cultivated  as  in  some  of  the  other  Territories.  There 
had  been  no  serious  fighting  with  the  Indians  until  1876,  when 
the  Sioux,  in  the  extreme  northeast  of  the  Territory,  in  the  Black 
Hills,  attacked  General  Custer  s command  and  completely  de- 
stroyed it.  The  Sioux  have  since  been  expelled  from  the  Terri- 
tory, and  there  are  now  only  a band  of  the  Eastern  Shoshones, 
numbering  1,250  and  partially  civilized,  and  a smaller  band  of 
the  Northern  Arapahoes,  numbering  900,  in  the  Territory.  These 
are  both  on  the  Shoshone  Reservation,  which  contains  1,520,000 
acres,  with  a fair  proportion  of  tillable  land,  and  are  peaceable 
and  quiet. 

The  State  is  deserving  of  a better  reputation  than  it  has  had 
in  the  past,  and  will  be  found  desirable  for  those  who  are  dis- 
posed to  engage  in  stock-raising  or  the  breeding  of  horses  ; 
while  parties  who  have  some  means  can  invest  them  very  profit- 
ably in  some  of  the  rich  valleys  of  the  Big  Horn  or  Wind  River 
Mountains,  and  with  a moderate  irrigation  can  produce  abundant 
crops,  for  which  they  will  find  a ready  home  market.  The  con- 
struction of  railways,  rendering  the  Yellowstone  National  Park 
readily  accessible,  has  not  only  called  many  thousands  to  Wy- 
oming, but  has  greatly  increased  the  demand  for  agricultural 
products,  which  ought  to  be  supplied  by  Wyoming  farmers. 

Wyoming  was  admitted  as  a State  July  1 1,  1890.  The  pop- 
ulation in  1890,  of  60,705,  was  a threefold  increase  in  ten  years, 
and  in  the  next  decade  the  advance  will  be  remarkable. 


492 


BOUNDARIES  OF  YELLOWSTONE  PARK 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

im  YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK. 


The  Yellowstone  National  Park  is  a region  about  sixty-five 
miles  long  by  fifty-five  miles  wide,  situated  mostly  in  the  northwest 
corner  of  Wyoming  Territory,  but  on  its  north  and  west  sides 
stretching  a few  miles  into  the  adjacent  Territories  of  Montana 
and  Idaho.  It  covers  an  area  of  about  3,578  square  miles,  or 
2,298,920  acres,  having  an  extent  a little  greater  than  that  of  the 
combined  States  of  Rhode  Island  and  Delaware.  In  this  region 
there  are  assembled  so  many  grand,  sublime  and  picturesque 
natural  objects,  and  such  a variety  of  unique  and  marvellous 
phenomena,  that  when  an  account  of  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  these  wonders  was  brought  before  Congress  in  the  report  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  under  Professor  Hayden, 
an  act  was  passed  by  the  unanimous  vote  of  both  Houses,  and 
approved  by  the  President,  March  i,  1872,  withdrawing  from 
sale  and  occupancy,  and  setting  apart  as  a National  Park,  or 
perpetual  public  pleasure  ground,  for  the  use  and  enjoyment  of 
the  people,  the  area  above  described,  with  boundaries  designed 
to  include  the  chief  wonders  of  the  region,  and  described  as  fol- 
lows: “Commencing  at  the  junction  of  Gardiner’s  river  with  the 
Yellowstone  river,  and  running  east  to  the  meridian  passing  ten 
miles  to  the  eastward  of  the  most  eastern  point  of  Yellowstone 
lake ; thence  south  along  said  meridian  to  the  parallel  of  latitude 
passing  ten  miles  south  of  the  most  southerly  point  of  Yellowstone 
lake;  thence  west  along  said  parallel  to  the  meridian  passing  fifteen 
miles  west  of  the  most  western  point  of  Madison  lake ; thence 
north  along  said  meridian  to  the  latitude  of  the  junction  of  the 


BOUNDARIES  FIXED  BY  CONGRESS.  493 

Yellowstone  and  Gardiner’s  rivers  ; thence  east  to  the  place  of 
beginning.” 

The  region,  thus  bounded,  stretches  a few  miles  east  of  the  me- 
ridian of  1 10°,  and  about  as  far  west  of  the  meridian  of  1 1 1°  west 
longitude  from  Greenwich,  and  a few  miles  north  of  the  parallel 
of  45°,  and  not  quite  so  far  south  as  44°  north  latitude.  These 
boundaries  show  at  once  that  this  National  Park  is  not  like  the 
parks  of  Colorado,  which  are  strictly  natural  divisions  of  land, 
being  great  areas,  level  or  slightly  undulating,  enclosed  by  a rim 
of  lofty  mountains,' whereas  the  boundaries  of  the  National  Park 
are  purely  artificial,  merely  referring  to  certain  natural  objects 
for  their  location. 

“Situated,”  says  Professor  William  I.  Marshall,  who  has 
made  this  great  wonderland  a special  subject  of  study,  “along 
the  highest  part  of  that  great  culminating  area  of  North  America 
which  has  been  aptly  termed  ‘ The  Crown  of  the  Continent,’  and 
from  which  pour  down  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  southeast, 
to  the  Gulf  of  California  on  the  southwest,  and  to  the  open  Pa- 
cific on  the  northwest,  the  mightiest  rivers  of  both  coasts  of 
the  continent,  the  Park  embraces  within  its  boundaries,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  main  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  country 
about  some  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Lewis  or  Snake  river,  the 
great  southerly  fork  of  the  Oregon  or  Columbia,  the  greatest 
river  of  the  Pacific  slope,  which  no  longer 

“ ‘ Hears  no  sound 

Save  its  own  dashings,’ 

since  the  steamer’s  wheels  now  vex  its  waters,  the  hum  of  varied 
industry  rises  from  its  fertile  valleys,  and  the  roar  of  the  railroad 
startles  the  echoes  along  its  dales.  Most  of  the  Park,  however, 
is  on  the  east  side  of  the  main  range,  and  embraces  the  country 
about  the  headwaters  of  the  Madison  and  Gallatin  rivers,  which 
are  the  middle  and  eastern  of  the  three  streams  which  unite  to 
form  the  Missouri  river,  and  much  of  the  upper  valley,  though 
not  the  extreme  headwaters  of  the  Yellowstone  river,  which  is  a 
stream  as  long  as  the  Rhine  or  the  Ohio,  far  surpasses  them  in 
the  sublimity  of  its  scenery,  and  is  the  greatest  tributary  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  Missouri  river. 


494 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


“ Being  a volcanic  region,  the  Park  (except  a little  of  the  north- 
east corner  of  it,  where  silver  mines  exist)  is  valueless  for  mining 
purposes,  except  for  sulphur,  and  as  that  exists  in  unlimited  quan- 
tities at  points  nearer  the  main  line  of  the  Union  Pacific,  notably 
at  a point  forty  miles  southeast  of  Evanston,  the  extra  freight  on 
it  will  make  the  Park  deposit  economically  valueless.  As  the 
lowest  valleys  of  the  Park  are  more  than  6,000  and  most  of  them 
from  7,000  to  8,000  feet  above  the  sea,  its  altitude  and  latitude 
make  it  worthless  for  farming  purposes,  there  being  few  nights 
without  frosts.  Though  not  adapted  for  a permanent  residence 
of  any  considerable  population,  the  Park,  with  its  opportunities 
for  sailing,  and  rowing,  and  fishing,  and  hunting,  with  the  grandest 
of  mountains  within  it  and  upon  its  borders,  and  the  purest  of  air 
ever  sweeping  over  it,  and  with  the  inducements  to  open  air  life 
and  exercise  offered  by  its  unique  and  enchanting  scenery,  is  pre- 
eminently fitted  for  a public  pleasure  ground,  from  June  to  Oc- 
tober, and  especially  from  about  the  first  of  August  to  the  middle 
of  October.  Though  a volcanic  region,  there  is  nowhere  in  the 
Park  any  opening  from  which  flame,  smoke,  ashes  or  lava  issues 
now,  or,  as  far  as  known,  has  issued  for  ages  past,  the  only  mani- 
festations of  the  volcanic  forces  now  being  limited  to  eruptions 
of  steam  and  hot  water ; though  almost  everywhere  in  the  Park, 
and  outside  its  boundaries  in  many  directions,  are  vast  beds  and 
streams  of  ancient  lava,  showing  how  terrific  was  the  former  in- 
tensity of  the  volcanic  forces,  whose  declining  activity  now  only 
suffices  to  produce  steam  and  spout  boiling  water,  instead,  as 
anciently,  of  melting  down  into  indistinguishable  ruin  the  ada- 
mantine framework  of  the  continent,  and  spreading  it,  as  a foam- 
ing torrent  of  fiery  devastation,  over  the  surface  of  mountains 
and  plains  for  an  area  of  scores  of  thousands  of  square  miles.” 

The  Park  is  not  readily  accessible  from  Wyoming;  on  its  east- 
ern side  the  Wind  River  Range  presents  an  impassable  barrier 
of  lofty  walls  of  rock,  through  which  none  of  the  exploring  parties 
have  ever  been  able  to  find  a practicable  pass  even  for  pack 
animals;  on  the  southern  side  a stage  road  extends  from  Green 
River  City  to  Camp  Brown,  a distance  of  155  miles;  thence  a 
tolerable  wagon  road  exists  to  the  head  of  Wind  river,  a distance 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

of  I lo  miles  more  ; but  from  thence  to  Yellowstone  lake,  a dis- 
tance of  fifty  miles,  is  a difficult  trail,  which  can  be  traversed  only 
on  foot  with  pack  animals  and  with  considerable  danger.  On 
the  west  side,  by  way  of  the  Union  Pacific  extension  north 
from  Ogden  to  Garrison  (Northern  Pacific).  At  the  proper 
alighting  place  is  a wagon  road  to  the  Upper  Geyser  and  the 
Park  roads.  On  these  run  the  daily  stage,  though  the  circuit 
takes  usually  five  days  for  a good  view  of  the  sights.  The  pre- 
ferred route  is  to  Livingston  by  the  Northern  Pacific,  as  its 
branch  to  Cinnabar  is  at  the  edge  of  the  National  Pleasure- 
grounds.  The  large  hotel  at  Mammoth  Springs  accommodates 
some  hundreds  of  guests.  At  other  points  on  the  stage  road  are 
houses  for  tourists,  all  governed  by  the  Park  Association  under 
United  States  Army  franchises.  The  charges  for  guides,  horses, 
etc.,  are  fixed,  and  the  most  modern  appliances,  such  as  the 
telegraph,  are  at  hand  in  the  heart  of  this  wild  wonderlanrV 

It  should  be  said  that  that  portion  of  the  Park  lying  east  of 
the  Yellowstone  river  and  lake  is  so  rough  and  mountainous  and 
possesses  so  few  attractions,  that  it  is  not  often  visited.  The 
lofty  mountain  chain  which  extends  from  the  southeastern  arm  of 
Yellowstone  lake  to  Slough  creek  and  the  Tower  creek  falls 
of  the  Yellowstone,  has  but  a single  and  very  difficult  pass 
over  it. 

The  elevated  plateau  enclosed  between  this  mountain  range 
and  the  Yellowstone  lake  and  river  affords  a fine  pasture-ground 
for  the  elk,  black  buffalo,  deer,  bighorns  and  moose,  which,  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Park,  are  so  ruthlessly  slaughtered  by  wanton 
tourists,  and  after  being  deprived  of  their  skins,  antlers,  or  horns, 
and  tongues,  are  left  to  be  the  prey  of  wolves,  panthers  and 
coyotes.  Amid  these  lofty  pasture-grounds  specimens  at  least 
of  our  great  game  animals  might  be  kept.  In  the  extreme  north- 
east corner  of  the  Park,  on  Clark’s  fork  of  the  Yellowstone,  are 
some  mines  of  gold  and  perhaps  silver,  which  might  better  be 
ceded  to  the  miners  than  suffered  to  encroach  on  the  Park. 

The  attractive  features  of  the  Park  are  all  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Yellowstone  river,  and  west  of  the  east  of  southeast  shores  of 
the  Yellowstone  lake.  Approaching  the  Park  from  the  north,  from 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


496 

Bozeman  and  Boteler’s  Ranche,  the  road  passes  first  along-  what 
is  called  outside  the  Park  the  Upper  Canon  of  the  Yellowstone, 
a narrow  passage  of  that  river  between  perpendicular,  rocky 
walls,  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet  in  height.  This  extends  for  about 
three  miles.  Ten  miles  farther  on.  Cinnabar  Mountain,  so  called 
from  its  surface  of  brilliant  red  clay  (the  color  being  due,  how- 
ever, to  red  ochre  and  not  to  cinnabar),  is  passed,  with  its  im- 
mense “ Devil’s  Slide,”  a huge  stone  trough,  which  extends  to  its 
summit,  with  smooth,  dark,  nearly  vertical  parallel  walls,  thirty 
feet  apart  and  200  feet  in  height.  A short  distance  beyond  this 
we  enter  the  Park,  passing  between  Sepulchre  Mountain,  the 
northern  terminal  mountain  of  the  Upper  Madison  Range,  on 
the  right  hand,  looking  south,  and  the  canon  of  Gardiner’s  river, 
an  affluent  of  the  Yellowstone,  which  liere  has  a course  nearly 
west  by  south,  through  deeply  worn  banks.  Shortly  after  leaving 
Sepulchre  Mountain  we  come  to  a terraced  hill,  quite  steep  and 
of  various  colors,  in  which  are  situated  the  Mammoth  Hot 
Springs,  wTose  wonderful  forms  and  character  we  will  allow'  an 
eye-witness  to  describe  presently.  Crossing  at  the  foot  of  these 
terraces  the  Gardiner  river  at  the  point  where  its  canon  com- 
mences, we  ride  along  by  the  side  of  a succession  of  cascades  of 
one  of  its  eastern  affluents,  and  striking  due  east,  at  a distance 
of  twenty  miles,  reach  Barronette’s  bridge  over  the  Yellowstone, 
and  a little  above,  just  where  the  Yellowstone  emerges  from  its 
Grand  Canon,  Tower  creek  comes  in  from  the  west,  plunging 
down  156  feet,  and  within  the  next  tw'o  hundred  yards  by  a suc- 
cession of  rapids  leaping  into  a dark  and  dismal  gorge,  260  feet 
in  depth.  Basaltic  tufa  cones  and  columns,  in  the  form  of  towers, 
turrets,  pinnacles  and  cathedrals,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  falls,  have 
suggested  its  name.  At  these  falls  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Yellow- 
stone, twenty  miles  in  length,  and  one  of  the  great  w'onders  of  the 
Park,  terminates.  Southward  from  the  Tower  falls  commences  the 
long,  rolling,  and  somewhat  difficult  ascent  to  Mount  Washburn, 
the  Pisgah  of  the  Park,  from  the  summit  of  which  can  be  seen,  in 
near  or  distant  view,  all  its  glories.  Descending  from  the  moun- 
tain, the  trail  takes  us  again  to  the  Yellowstone  and  to  the  great 
falls  which  precede  its  plunge  into  the  Great  Canon.  Reserving 


PRINCIPAL  OBJECTS  OF  JNTERES7'  /N  THE  PARK. 


497 


a description  of  these  for  the  poetic  language  of  an  eye-witness, 
we  follow  the  course  of  the  river  to  Sulphur  Mountain,  with  its 
boiling  springs  of  sulphuretted  water,  then  four  miles  farther  to 
the  Mud  Volcano,  or  Mud  Geysers,  spouting  springs,  which 
throw  up  mal-odorous  mud  instead  of  water,  and  one  of  which, 
from  its  preternatural  activity,  is  named  “The  Devil’s  Work- 
shop.” Eight  miles  farther  on,  we  reach  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  beautiful  Yellowstone  lake,  at  the  point  where  the  Yellow- 
stone river  leaves  it.  This  lake,  the  surface  of  which  is  7,788 
feet , above  the  sea,  is  twenty-two  miles  in  its  greatest  length,  and 
about  fifteen  miles  in  width,  and  has  a shore  line  of  more  than 
300  miles,  from  its  very  irregular  form.  There  are  a number  of 
islands  in  it,  and  its  beauty  is  too  great  for  description.  To  com- 
prehend its  loveliness  several  days  should  be  spent  in  camping 
on  its  borders.  From  this  lake  we  may  take  either  of  two  trails, 
the  one  going  nearly  south,  past  the  Geysers  of  the  Yellowstone 
lake,  on  the  east  side  of  the  great  divide  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  across  a spur  of  that  divide  to  Heart  lake,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Sheridan,  where  there  are  other  geysers,  and  thence  by  a 
new  trail  westward  past  Lewis  lake  and  Shoshone  lake,,  where 
there  are  more  geysers  and  a lake  four  feet  higher  than  the  Yel- 
lowstone, and  thence  northward  by  a difficult  pass  over  the  Rocky 
Mountains  to  the  Upper  Geyser  basin,  on  the  Upper  Madison 
river,  from  which  point  there  is  a good  road  (the  Norris  road) 
to  the  Midway  Springs  and  the  Lower  Geyser  basin,  on  the  Fire 
Hole  river.  Or,  we  may  go  from  the  geysers  on  the  Yellowstone 
lake  by  a shorter  though  difficult  trail  directly  west  to  the  Upper 
Geyser  basin,  without  visiting  Heart,  Lewis  and  Shoshone  lakes. 
From  this  Upper  Geyser  basin  we  pass  by  the  Norris  road,  as  we 
have  said,  to  the  Midway  Springs,  the  Lower  Geyser  basin,  in 
the  Fire  Hole  river,  the  Gibbon’s  Fire  Hole  basin  and  geysers  on 
the  Howard  road,  the  falls  and  canon  of  Gibbon’s  fork,  the  Mon- 
ument Geyser  basin,  the  Norris  and  Fire  Hole  basins,  of  geysers 
and  craters  of  spent  volcanoes,  the  remarkable  formation  of  Pine 
and  Beaver  lakes,  the  Obsidian  or  volcanic  glass  cliffs,  and  the 
road  of  glass  over  them,  and  so  back  to  the  Mammoth  Hot 
Springs  at  the  entrance  to  the  Park. 

78 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


498 

We  have  purposely  avoided  in  this  mere  itinerary  any  descrip- 
tion of  these  wonders,  that  we  might  do  them  better  justice  in 
the  vivid  portrayal  of  eye-witnesses.  The  tour  of  the  Park  thus 
described  covers  164  miles,  and  cannot  well  be  gone  over  in  less 
than  twelve  days. 

Turning  now  to  these  various  points  of  interest,  let  us  go  over 
them  in  detail,  using  the  descriptions  of  those  who  have  studied 
them  most  thoroughly,  and  been  most  deeply  impressed  with 
their  grandeur  and  beauty. 

Let  us  begin  with  a description  of  the  Mammoth  Hot 
Springs  of  Gardiner  river,  from  the  facile  and  skilful  pen  of 
Robert  E.  Strahorn,  Esq. : “ The  first  impression  of  these  Springs 
which  the  beholder  receives  is  that  of  a snowy  mountain  beauti- 
fully terraced,  with  projections  extending  out  in  various  direc- 
tions, resembling  frozen  cascades,  as  though  the  high,  foam-crested 
waves,  in  their  rapid  descent  over  the  steep  and  rugged  declivity, 
were  suddenly  arrested  and  congealed  on  the  spot  in  all  their 
native  beauty.  There  are  fifty  or  sixty  of  these  springs  of  greater 
and  smaller  dimensions,  extending  over  an  area  of  about  a mile 
square  ; though  there  are  remains  of  springs  of  the  same  kind  for 
miles  around,  and  mountains  of  the  same  deposit,  overgrown  with 
pine  trees,  perhaps  hundreds  of  years  old.  Most  of  the  water  is 
at  boiling  heat,  and  contains  in  solution  a great  amount  of  lime, 
sulphur  and  magnesia,  with  some  soda,  alumina  and  other  sub- 
stances, which  are  slowly  deposited  in  every  conceivable  form 
and  shape  as  the  water  flows  along  in  its  course  down  the  moun- 
tain side. 

“On  each  level,  or  terrace,  there  is  a large  central  spring,  which 
is  usually  surrounded  by  a basin  of  several  feet  in  diameter,  and 
the  water,  after  leaving  the  main  basin  at  different  portions  of  the 
delicately-wrought  rim,  flows  down  the  declivity,  step  by  step, 
forming  hundreds  of  basins  and  reservoirs  of  every  size  and 
depth,  from  a few  inches  to  six  or  eight  feet  in  diameter,  and 
from  one  inch  to  several  feet  in  depth,  their  margins  beautifully 
scalloped  with  a finish  resembling  bead-work  of  exquisite  beauty. 
Underneath  the  sides  of  many  of  the  basins  are  beautifully  ar- 
ranged stalactites,  formed  by  the  dripping  of  the  water ; and,  by 


MAMMOTH  HOT  SPRINGS— K.  E.  STRAHORN'S  DESCRIPTION. 

digging  beneath  the  surface  at  places  where  the  springs  are  in- 
active, the  most  delicate  and  charming  specimens  of  every  char- 
acter and  form  can  be  obtained — stalactites,  stalagmites,  grottos, 
etc.,  all  delicately  arranged  as  the  water  filtrates  through  the 
crevices  and  perforations  of  the  deposit.  It  is  a scene  sublime  in 
itself,  to  see  the  entire  area,  with  its  numerous  and  terraced 
reservoirs,  and  millions  of  delicate  little  urns,  sparkling  with 
water  transparent  as  glass,  and  tinged  with  many  varieties  of 
coloring,  all  glistening  under  the  glare  of  a noonday  sun. 

“ The  largest  spring  now  active,  situated  about  half  way  up  the 
mountain  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  main  terrace,  has  a basin  about 
twenty-five  by  forty  feet  in  diameter,  in  the  centre  of  which  the 
water  boils  up  several  inches  above  the  surface,  and  is  so  trans- 
parent that  you  can,  by  approaching  the  margin,  look  down  into 
the  heated  depths  many  feet  below  the  surface.  The  sides  of  the 
cavern  are  ornamented  with  a coral-like  formation  of  almost  every 
variety  of  shade,  with  a fine,  silky  substance,  much  like  moss,  of 
a bright  vegetable  green  spread  over  it  thinly,  which,  with  the 
slight  ebullition  of  the  water  keeping  it  in  constant  motion,  and 
the  blue  sky  reflected  in  the  transparent  depths,  gives  it  an  en- 
chanting beauty  far  beyond  the  skill  of  the  finest  artist.  Here 
all  the  hues  of  the  rainbow  are  seen  and  arranged  so  gorgeously 
that,  with  other  strange  views  by  which  one  is  surrounded,  you 
almost  imagine  yourself  in  some  fairy  region,  the  wonders  of 
which  baffle  all  attempts  of  pen  or  pencil  to  portray  them. 

“Besides  the  elegant  sculpturing  of  this  deposit,  imagine,  if 
you  can,  the  wonderful  variety  of  delicate  and  artistically  arranged 
colors  with  which  it  is  adorned.  The  mineral-charged  fluid  lays 
down  pavements  here  and  there  of  all  the  shades  of  red,  from 
bright  scarlet  to  rose  tint,  beautiful  layers  of  bright  sulphur-yellow, 
interspersed  with  tints  of  green,  all  elaborately  arranged  in  Na- 
ture’s own  order. 

“At  the  foot  of  the  mountain  are  several  springs  whose  waters 
have  effected  remarkable  cures  in  cases  of  chronic  rheumatism, 
eruptive  diseases,  etc.  The  medicinal  properties  of  each  fountain 
seem  to  be  different,  and  the  invalid  can  find  which  are  best 
adapted  to  his  or  her  own  case.” 


5oo 


OUR  WES7'ERN  EMPIRE. 


On  leaving  the  Hot  Springs  to  make  the  circuit  of  the  Park, 
the  favorite  course  is  that  leading  eastward  to  the  Yellowstone 
Canon.  The  route  passes  up  Gardiner’s  river,  with  its  three 
falls,  through  a pleasant  country,  twenty-two  miles,  to  Tower 
creek,  a rapid,  snow-fed  brook,  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  wide,  and 
one  or  two  feet  deep,  which  here  joins  the  Yellowstone.  Tower 
creek  rises  in  the  high  divide  between  the  valleys  of  the  Missouri 
and  Yellowstone,  and  flows  for  about  ten  miles  through  a canon 
so  deep  and  gloomy  that  it  has  earned  the  appellation  of  the 
“ Devil’s  Den.”  About  two  hundred  yards  above  its  entrance 
into  the  Yellowstone,  the  stream  pours  over  an  abrupt  descent 
of  156  feet,  forming  one  of  the  most  beautiful  falls  to  be  found  in 
any  country.  These  falls  are  about  260  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  Yellowstone  at  the  junction,  and  are  surrounded  with  columns 
of  volcanic  breccia,  rising  fifty  feet  above  the  falls,  and  extending 
down  to  the  foot,  standing  like  gloomy  sentinels,  or  like  gigantic 
pillars,  at  the  entrance  of  some  grand  temple.  Of  these  columns 
the  late  Hon.  N.  P.  Langford,  the  first  superintendent  and  his- 
torian of  the  Park,  said:  “ Some  resemble  towers,  others  the  spires 
of  churches,  and  others  still  shoot  up  as  little  and  slender  as 
the  minarets  of  a mosque.  Some  of  the  loftiest  of  these  forma- 
tions,  standing  upon  the  very  brink  of  the  fall,  are  accessible  to 
an  expert  and  adventurous  climber.  The  position  attained  on 
one  of  these  narrow  summits,  amid  the  uproar  of  waters,  and  at 
a lieight  of  260  feet  above  the  boiling  chasm,  as  the  writer  can 
affirm,  requires  a steady  head  and  strong  nerves ; yet  the  view 
which  rewards  the  temerity  of  the  exploit  is  full  of  compensa- 
tions.” Below  the  fall  the  stream  descends  in  numerous  rapids 
with  frightful  velocity,  through  a gloomy  gorge,  to  its  union  with 
the  Yellowstone.  Its  bed  is  filled  with  enormous  boulders, 
against  which  the  rushing  waters  break  with  great  fury.  Many 
of  the  capricious  formations  wrought  from  the  shale  excite  mer- 
riment as  well  as  wonder.  Of  this  kind,  especially,  is  a huge 
mass,  sixty  feet  in  height,  which,  from  its  supposed  resemblance 
to  the  proverbial  foot  of  his  Satanic  Majesty,  is  called  the  “Devil’s 
Hoof.”  The  scenery  of  mountain,  rock  and  forest  surrounding 
the  falls  is  very  beautiful.  The  name  of  “ Tower  Falls  ” was,  of 


FALLS  OF  THE  YELLOWSTONE — Geysers  of  the  Yelloivstone), 


TOWEK  CREEK  EALLS—LANGFORD  AND  DOANE.  5oi 

course,  suggested  by  some  of  the  most  conspicuous  features  of 
the  scenery.  The  sides  of  the  chasm  are  worn  into  caverns,  lined 
with  variously  tinted  mosses,  nourished  by  clouds  of  spray  which 
rise  from  the  cataract ; while  above  and  to  the  left,  a spur  from 
the  great  plateau  rises  over  all  with  a perpendicular  front  of  400 
feet. 

“Nothing,”  says  Lieutenant  Doane,  “can  be  more  chastely 
beautiful  than  this  lovely  cascade,  hidden  away  in  the  dim  light 
of  overshadowing  rocks  and  woods,  its  very  voice  hushed  to  a 
low  murmur,  unheard  at  the  distance  of  a few  hundred  yards. 
Thousands  might  pass  by  within  a half  mile  and  not  dream  of  its 
existence ; but  once  seen,  it  passes  to  the  list  of  most  pleasant 
memories.” 

A fine  view  of  Tower  falls  can  be  had  from  an  easily  ascended 
cliff  above  them,  but  a better  one,  a prospect  that  is  simply  en- 
chanting,  can  be  obtained  by  walking  down  to  the  mouth  of 
Tower  creek,  200  yards,  and  following  up  stream,  through  the 
beautiful  gateway,  to  their  foot.  Two  hundred  yards  above  the 
fails  is  a finely  sheltered,  picturesque  camp,  with  grass,  wood  and 
water  abundant. 

From  Tower  creek  and  falls  we  have  a choice  between  two 
routes,  one  leading  along  the  western  bank  of  the  Yellowstone 
river,  and  overlooking  the  Grand  Canon  for  twenty  miles,  the 
other  ascending  by  a long  and  wearisome  climb  the  northern 
slope  of  Mount  Washburn,  10,388  feet  above  the  sea,  from  whose 
summit  all  the  points  of  interest  in  the  Park  can  be  discerned 
with  a good  field-glass  in  the  clear  and  transparent  summer  air. 
Most  visitors  prefer  this  ascent  first,  as  giving  them  a more  com- 
prehensive idea  of  the  magnificence  of  the  Park.  We  will  follow 
their  example,  in  imagination  at  least,  and  will  allow  Rev.  Way- 
land  Hoyt,  D.  D.,  of  Brooklyn,  who  visited  the  Park  in  1878  in 
General  Miles’  party,  to  describe  to  us  the  glorious  vision  : * 

“Let  us  take  our  stand  for  a little  now  upon  Mount  Wash- 
burn. Its  rounded  crest  is  more  than  10,000  feet  above  the  level 


* This  glowing  picture  of  the  view  from  Mount  Washburn,  as  well  as  some  other  eloquent 
passages  farther  on,  are  copied,  by  the  kind  permission  of  the  author,  from  an  address  on  the 
Yellowstone  Park,  which  Dr.  Hoyt  prepared  after  his  return,  but  which  is  as  yet  unpublished. 


5o2 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


of  the  sea,  and  perhaps  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  valley 
out  of  which  it  springs.  Its  smooth  slopes  are  easy  of  ascent. 
You  need  not  dismount  from  your  horse  to  gain  its  summit. 
Standing  there  you  look  down  upon  the  whole  grand  panorama, 
as  does  that  eagle  yonder,  holding  himself  aloft  upon  almost  mo- 
tionless wings.  I doubt  if  there  is  another  view  at  once  so  ma- 
jestic and  so  beautiful  in  the  whole  world.  Your  vision  darts 
through  the  spaces  for  150  miles  on  some  sides.  You  are  stand- 
ing upon  a mountain  lifting  itself  out  of  a vast  saucer-shaped 
depression.  Away  yonder,  where  the  sky  seems  to  meet  the 
earth,  on  every  side,  around  the  whole  circumference  of  your 
sight,  are  lines  and  ranges  of  snow-capped  peaks  shutting  your 
glances  in.  Yonder  shoots  upward  the  serrated  peak  of  Pilot 
Mountain,  in  the  Clark’s  Fork  Range.  Joined  to  that,  sweep 
on  around  you,  in  the  dim  distance,  the  snowy  lines  of  the  Madison 
Range.  Yonder  join  hands  with  these  the  Stinking  Water  Moun- 
tains, and  so  on  and  on  and  around.  Do  you  see  that  sharp, 
pinnacle-pointed  mountain,  away  off  at  the  southwest,  shining,  in 
its  garments  of  white,  against  the  blue  of  the  summer  sky? — that 
is  Mount  Everts,  named  after  the  poor  lost  wanderer,  who  for 
thirty-seven  days  of  deadly  peril  and  starvation  sought  a way  of 
escape  from  these  frowning  mountain  barriers,  which  shut  him 
in  so  remorselessly,  and  it  marks  the  divide  of  the  continent. 

“ Take  now  a closer  view  for  a moment.  Mark  the  lower 
hills,  folded  in  their  thick  draperies  of  pine  and  spruce  like  dark 
green  velvet,  of  the  softest  and  the  deepest ; notice,  too,  those 
beautiful  park-like  spaces,  where  the  trees  refuse  to  grow,  and 
where  the  prairie  spreads  its  smooth  sward  freely  toward  the  sun- 
light. And — those  spots  of  steam,  breaking  into  the  vision  every 
now  and  then,  and  floating  off  like  the  whitest  clouds  that  ever 
graced  the  summer  sky — those  are  the  signals  of  the  geysers  at 
their  strange  duty,  yonder  in  the  geyser  basins,  thirty  miles  away. 
And — those  bits  of  silver,  flashing  hither  and  thither  on  the  hill- 
sides amid  the  dense  green  of  the  forests — these  are  waterfalls 
and  fragments  of  ice-glaciers,  which  for  ages  have  been  at  their 
duty  of  sculpturing  these  mountains,  and  have  not  yet  completed 
it.  And — that  lovely  deep  blue  sheet  of  water,  of  such  a dainty^ 


APPROACH  TO  THE  GREAT  EALLS  AND  GRAND  CAJVON.  SOT, 

shape,  running  its  arms  out  toward  the  hills,  and  bearing  on  its 
serene  bosom  emeralds  of  islands — that  is  the  sweetest  sheet  of 
water  in  the  world — that  is  the  Yellowstone  lake.  And — that 
exquisite  broad  sheen  of  silver,  winding  through  the  green  of 
the  trees  and  the  brown  of  the  prairie — that  is  the  Yellowstone 
river,  starting  on  its  wonderful  journey  to  the  Missouri,  and 
thence  downward  to  the  gulf,  between  six  and  seven  thousand 
miles  away.  But,  nearer  to  us,  almost  at  our  feet,  as  we  trace 
this  broad  line  of  silver,  the  eye  encounters  a frightful  chasm,  as 
if  the  earth  had  suddenly  sunk  away,  and  into  its  gloomy  depths 
the  brightness  and  beauty  of  the  shining  river  leaps,  and  is 
thenceforward  lost  altogether  to  the  view — ^/la^  is  the  tremendous 
canon  or  gorge  of  the  Yellowstone.” 

Contrary  to  the  Latin  adage,  ''Facilis  descensus  Avernid  the 
descent  from  Mount  Washburn  to  the  Grand  Canon  of  the 
Yellowstone  is  one  o/  considerable  difficulty  by  the  old  trail ; but 
by  a new  one  traced  by  Mr.  P.  W.  Norris,  the  present  superin- 
tendent of  the  Park,  it  is  much  easier.  The  old  trail,  more  than 
twenty  miles  in  length,  followed  the  Washburn  Range  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  river,  through  tangled  forest  and 
along  rocky  and  precipitous  passes,  to  the  upper  and  lower  falls 
of  the  Yellowstone,  just  where  Cascade  creek  discharges  its 
waters  into  the  river.  This  is  above  the  Grand  Canon,  or,  rather, 
at  the  point  where  it  commences;  for  these  two  falls,  the  upper  of 
about  150  feet,  and  the  lower  of  350  feet,  with  the  rapids  which 
follow,  constitute  a part  of  the  tremendous  depth  to  which  the 
Grand  Canon  sinks,  and  which  it  maintains  to.  the  point  of  emer- 
gence at  Tower  creek  falls,  twenty  miles  below.  At  one  or  two 
points  near  its  lower  terminus  daring  and  adventurous  spirits 
have  reached  the  floor  of  the  canon,  but  have  found  it  extremely 
perilous  and  difficult  to  clamber  out  of  it ; they  describe  it  as 
having  its  full  share  of  disagreeable  sounds,  sights  and  smells, 
from  the  great  number  of  hot  springs  of  sulphur,  sulphate  of  cop- 
per, alum,  etc.  The  water  is  warm  and  impregnated  with  a vil- 
lanous  taste  of  alum  and  sulphur,  and  along  the  dark  margin  of 
the  river  are  numerous  chemical  and  corrosive  springs,  some 
depositing  craters  of  calcareous  rock,  and  some  casting  up  vol- 


OUR  IVES  TERN  EMPIRE. 


5o4 

umes  of  mud  or  muddy  waters.  The  greater  part  of  the  Grand 
Canon,  however,  and  especially  its  upper  two-thirds,  had  always 
been  regarded  as  entirely  inaccessible,  till  the  summer  of  1878, 
when  Messrs.  Hoyt  and  Rouse,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  succeeded 
at  the  imminent  peril  of  their  lives,  in  descending  to  it,  a little 
below  the  Great  falls.  They  describe  it  as  fearfully  gloomy 
and  uncanny.  Rev.  Dr.  Hoyt  and  his  party  took  the  old  trail  and 
approached  the  river  at  the  mouth  of  Cascade  creek,  between 
the  upper  and  lower  or  Great  falls,  at  the  point  where  they  could 
look  down  into  the  Grand  Canon  at  the  place  of  its  greatest 
magnificence,  and  of  the  many  descriptions  of  this  great  wonder 
of  the  world,  that  which  he  has  given  may  justly  be  esteemed 
the  most  graphic  and  beautiful.  It  is  as  follows : 

“Well,  we  have  reached  Cascade  creek  at  last;  and  a beautiful 
grove  of  trees,  beneath  whose  shade  sparkles  a clear  stream, 
whose  waters  are  free  from  the  nauseous  taste  of  alkali,  furnishes 
a delightful  place  in  which  to  camp.  Now — dismounting  and 
seeing  that  your  horse  is  well  cared  for,  while  the  men  are  un- 
loading the  pack-mules  and  pitching  the  tents — walk  up  that 
trail,  winding  up  that  hillside ; follow  it  for  a little  among  the 
solemn  pines,  and  then  pass  out  from  the  tree-shadows,  and  take 
your  stand  upon  that  jutting  rock — clinging  to  it  well  meanwhile, 
and  being  very  sure  of  your  footing,  for  your  head  will  surely  grow 
dizzy — and  there  opens  before  you  one  of  the  most  stupendous 
scenes  in  Nature — the  lower  falls  and  the  awful  canon  of 
THE  Yellowstone. 

“And  now,  where  shall  I begin,  and  how  shall  I,  in  any  wise, 
describe  this  tremendous  sight — its  overpowering  grandeur,  and 
at  the  same  time  its  inexpressible  beauty? 

“Look  yonder — those  are  the  lower  falls  of  the  Yellowstone. 
They  are  not  the  grandest  in  the  world,  but  there  are  none  more 
beautiful.  There  is  not  the  breadth  and  dash  of  Niagara,  nor  is 
there  the  enormous  depth  of  leap  of  some  of  the  waterfalls 
of  the  Yosemite.  But  here  is  majesty  of  its  own  kind,  and 
beauty,  too.  On  either  side  are  vast  pinnacles  of  sculptured 
rock.  There,  where  the  rock  opens  for  the  river,  its  waters  are 
compressed  from  a width  of  200  feet,  between  the  upper  and 


/^£F.  DR.  HOYT'S  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  GRAND  CANON  5o5 

lower  falls,  to  1 50  where  it  takes  the  plunge.  The  shelf  of  rock 
over  which  it  leaps  is  absolutely  level.  The  water  seems  to  wait 
a moment  on  its  verge;  then  it  passes  with  a single  bound  of  350 
feet  into  the  gorge  below.  It  is  a sheer,  unbroken,  compact, 
shininor  mass  of  silver  foam. 

o 

“ But  your  eyes  are  all  the  time  distracted  from  the  fall  itself, 
great  and  beautiful  as  it  is,  to  its  marvellous  setting — to  the  sur- 
prising, overmastering  canon  into  which  the  river  leaps,  and 
through  which  it  flows,  dwindling  to  but  a foamy  ribbon  there  in 
its  appalling  depths. 

“As  you  cling  here  to  this  jutting  rock,  the  falls  are  already 
many  hundred  feet  below  you.  The  falls  unroll  their  whiteness 
down  amid  the  canon  glooms.  Hold  firmly  on,  and  peer  over 
the  rock  to  which  you  cling  and  gaze  down  ; that  apparently 
narrow  stream  is  the  large  river  flowing  nearly  2,000  feet  below 
you  ; it  is  sheer  that  distance  ; these  rocky  sides  are  almost  per- 
pendicular— indeed  in  many  places  the  boiling  springs  have 
gouged  them  out  so  as  to  leave  overhanging  clifls  and  tables  at 
the  top.  Take  a stone  and  throw  it  over — you  must  wait  long 
before  you  hear  it  strike.  Nothing  more  awful  have  I ever  seen 
than  the  yawning  of  that  chasm.  And  the  stillness,  solemn  as 
midnight,  profound  as  death!  The  water  dashing  there  as  in  a 
kind  of  agony  against  those  rocks,  you  cannot  hear.  The  mighty 
distance  lays  the  finger  of  its  silence  on  its  white  lips.  You  are 
oppressed  with  a sense  of  danger.  It  is  as  though  the  vastness 
would  soon  force  you  from  the  rock  to  which  you  cling.  The 
silence,  the  sheer  depth,  the  gloom  burden  you.  It  is  a relief  to 
feel  the  firm  earth  beneath  your  feet  again,  as  you  carefully  crawl 
back  from  your  perching  place. 

“ But  this  is  not  all,  nor  is  the  half  yet  told.  As  soon  as  you 
can  stand  it,  go  out  on  that  jutting  rock  again,  and  mark  the 
sculpturings  of  God  upon  those  vast  and  solemn  walls.  By  dash 
of  wind  and  wave,  by  forces  of  the  frost,  by  file  of  snow  plunge 
and  glacier  and  mountain  torrent,  by  the  hot  breath  of  boiling 
springs,  those  walls  have  been  cut  into  the  most  various  and 
surprising  shapes.  I have  seen  the  middle  age  castles  along  the 
Rhine ; there,  those  castles  are  reproduced  exactly.  I have  seen 


5o6 


ULR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


the  soaring  summits  of  the  great  cathedral  spires,  in  the  country 
beyond  the  sea ; there  they  stand  in  prototype,  only  loftier  and 
sublimer. 

“And  then,  of  course  and  almost  beyond  all  else,  you  are  fasci- 
nated by  the  magnificence  and  utter  opulence  of  color.  Those 
are  not  simply  gray  and  hoary  depths  and  reaches,  and  domes 
and  pinnacles  of  sullen  rock.  The  whole  gorge  flames.  It  is  as 
though  rainbows  had  fallen  out  of  the  sky  and  hung  themselves 
there  like  glorious  banners.  The  underlying  color  is  the  clearest 
yellow ; this  flushes  onward  into  orange.  Down  at  the  base  the 
deepest  mosses  unroll  their  draperies  of  the  most  vivid  green  ; 
browns,  sweet  and  soft,  do  their  blending ; white  rocks  stand 
spectral ; turrets  of  rock  shoot  up  as  crimson  as  though  they 
were  drenched  through  with  blood.  It  Is  a wilderness  of  color. 
It  is  Impossible  that  even  the  pencil  of  an  artist  tell  it.  What 
you  would  call,  accustomed  to  the  softer  tints  of  nature,  a great 
exaggeration,  would  be  the  utmost  tameness  compared  with  the 
reality.  It  Is  as  though  the  most  glorious  sunset  you  ever  saw 
had  been  caught  and  held  upon  that  resplendent,  awful  gorge  ! 

“Through  nearly  all  the  hours  of  that  afternoon,  until  the  sun- 
set shadows  came,  and  afterwards  amid  the  moonbeams,  I waited 
there,  clinging  to  that  rock,  jutting  out  into  that  overpowering, 
gorgeous  chasm.  I was  appalled  and  fascinated,  afraid  and  yet 
compelled  to  cling  there.  It  was  an  epoch  in  my  life.” 

But  we  must  hasten  forward.  The  trail  above  the  upper  falls 
follows  closely  the  right  or  west  bank  of  the  Yellowstone  to  the 
Yellowstone  lake,  a distance  of  eighteen  or  nineteen  miles.  On 
the  way  Sulphur  Mountain  Is  passed  on  the  right,  and  the  Sulphur 
Hills  on  the  left,  east  of  the  river,  though  neither  of  them  are  more 
sulphurous  than  many  other  hills  and  mounds  In  the  Park.  Eleven 
miles  from  the  Great  Falls  is  the  Mud  Volcano,  an  Interesting 
though  somewhat  dirty  object.  Eight  miles  more  bring  the 
traveller  to  the  Yellowstone  lake,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  sheets 
of  water  in  “Our  Western  Empire,”  and  hardly  surpassed  In 
beauty  by  any  lake  on  our  globe.  It  is  twenty-two  miles  in 
length,  and  from  twelve  to  fifteen  in  breadth. 


THE  UPPER  GEYSER  BASIN. 


5o7 

We  shall  not  attempt  in  this  place  any  explanation  of  the  phi- 
losophy of  the  geyser,  for  two  reasons  : one,  that  scientists  are 
not  agreed  in  their  views  of  it ; the  only  thing  fully  ascertained 
in  regard  to  it  is  that  the  hot  water  passes  up  through  long 
tubes  or  pipes  of  different  diameters  ; and  the  other,  that  their 
explanations  are  too  abstruse  to  be  understood  by  the  masses. 

We  will,  then,  turn  to  a contemplation  of  the  geysers,  and  es- 
pecially of  those  of  the  Upper  Geyser  Basin,  where,  though 
somewhat  fewer  in  number  than  in  the  Lower  basin,  they  are  of 
much  greater  power  and  magnificence.  And,  first,  let  us  follow 
Rev.  Edwin  Stanley,  a visitor  to  the  Park,  whose  “ Rambles  in 
Wonderland,”  gives  a very  interesting  account  of  this  Upper 
basin,  as  he  marshals  the  geysers  in  a grand  parade  : 

“ Let  us  imagine  ourselves  for  once  standing  in  a central  posi- 
tion, where  we  can  see  every  geyser  in  the  basin.  It  is  an  ex- 
tra occasion,  and  they  are  all  out  on  parade,  and  all  playing  at  once. 
There  is  good  Old  Faithful,  always  ready  for  her  part,  doing  her 
best — the  two  by  five  feet  column  playing  to  a height  of  iSofeet 
— perfect  in  all  the  elements  of  geyser  action.  Yonder  the  Bee- 
hive is  sending  up  its  graceful  column  200  feet  heavenward,  while 
the  Giantess  is  just  in  the  humor,  and  is  making  a gorgeous  dis- 
play of  its,  say,  ten  feet  volume  to  an  altitude  of  2 5o  feet.  In 
the  meantime  the  old  Castle  answers  the  summons,  and  putting 
on  its  strength  with  alarming  detonations  is  belching  forth  a gi- 
gantic volume  seventy  feet  above  its  crater;  while  over  there,  just 
above  the  Saw-mill,  which  is  rallying  all  its  forpe  to  the  exhibi- 
tion, rustling  about  and  spurting  upward  its  six-inch  jet  with  as 
much  self-importance  as  if  it  were  the  only  geyser  in  the  basin,  we 
seethe  Grand,  by  a more  than  ordinary  effort,  overtopping  all  the 
rest,  with  its  heaven-ascending,  graceful  volume,  300  feet  in  the 
air.  Just  below  here  the  Riverside,  the  Comet,  the  complicated 
and  fascinating  Fantail,  and  the  curiously-wrought  Grotto,  are 
all  chiming  in,  and  the  grand  old  Giant,  the  chief  of  the  basin,  not 
to  be  left  behind,  or  by  any  one  outdone,  is  towering  up  with  its 
six  feet  fountain,  swaying  in  the  bright  sunlight  at  an  elevation 
of  2 5o  feet.  In  the  meantime  a hundred  others  of  lesser  note, 
we  will  say,  are  answering  the  call  at  this  grand  exposition,  and 


5o8 


OUR  WESTKKN  EMPIRE. 


coming  out  in  all  their  native  glory  and  surpassing  beauty. 
Just  listen  to  the  terrible,  awful  rumblings  and  deafening  thun- 
ders, as  if  the  very  earth  would  be  moved  from  its  foundation — 
the  thousand  reports  of  rushing  waters  and  hissing  steam,  while 
Pluto  is  mustering  all  his  forces,  and  Hades  would  feign  disgorge 
itself  and  submerge  our  world.  But  then  look  upward  at  the 
immense  masses  of  rising  steam  ascending  higher  and  still 
higher,  until  lost  in  the  heavens  above  ; while  every  column  is 
tinseled  over  with  a robe  of  silver  decked  with  all  the  prismatic 
colors,  and  every  majestic  fountain  is  encircled  with  a halo  of 
oforofeous  hues.” 

As  a matter  of  fact,  however,  the  geysers  are  never  all  in 
action  at  the  same  time.  Their  periods  of  activity  are  different 
at  different  times,  and  with  some  of  them  are  at  increasingly 
long  intervals,  and  probably  they  will  eventually  cease  to  act,  as 
so  many  others  have  done.  New  geysers  are  constantly  form- 
ing, and  may  take  the  places  of  the  silent  ones.  Some  of  the 
most  remarkable  of  the  number  are  so  uncertain  that  parties 
have  remained  at  the  basins  for  two  or  three  weeks  without  wit- 
nessing their  action,  and  again  perhaps  soon  after  they  have  sent 
up  a magnificent  column  twice  or  thrice  in  twenty-four  hours. 
One  explorer.  Lieutenant  Barlow,  tells  us  that  near  the  edge  of 
the  basin,  where  the  river  makes  a sharp  bend  to  the  southeast, 
is  found  the  initial  geyser — a small  steam  vent — on  the  right. 
Soon  on  either  side  of  the  river  are  seen  the  two  lively  geysers, 
called  the  “ Sentinels,”  because  of  their  nearness  to  the  gate  of 
the  great  geyser  basins.  The  one  on  the  left  is  in  constant 
agitation,  the  waters  revolving  horizontally  with  great  violence, 
and  occasionally  spouting  upward  to  the  height  of  twenty  feet, 
the  lateral  direction  being  fifty  feet.  Enormous  masses  of  steam 
are  ejected.  The  crater  of  this  is  three  feet  by  ten.  The  oppo- 
site Sentinel  is  not  so  constantly  active,  and  is  smaller.  About 
2 5o  yards  from  the  gate  are  three  geysers  acting  in  concert. 
When  in  full  action  the  display  from  these  is  very  fine.  The 
waters  spread  out  in  the  shape  of  a fan,  in  consequence  of  which 
they  have  been  named  the  Fan  Geysers.  One  hundred  yards 
farther  up  the  side  of  the  stream  is  found  a double  geyser,  a 


THE  UP  PER  GEYSER  BASJH. 


5o9 

Stream  from  one  of  its  orifices  playing  to  the  height  of  eighty  or 
ninety  feet,  emitting  large  volumes  of  steam.  From  the  forma- 
tion of  its  crater  it  was  named  the  Well  Geyser. 

Still  above  are  found  some  of  the  most  interesting  and  beauti- 
ful geysers  of  the  whole  basin.  First  are  two  smaller  geysers  near 
a large  spring  of  blue  water,  while  a few  yards  beyond  are  seen  the 
walls  and  arches  of  the  Grotto.  This  is  an  exceedingly  intricate 
formation,  eight  feet  in  height  and  ninety  in  circumference.  It  is 
by  many  called  the  gem  of  all  the  geysers.  It  is  absolutely  magnifi- 
cent— a sight  of  resplendent  beauty,  that  greets  the  eyes  nowhere 
outside  of  the  region  of  the  National  Park.  It  is  simply  a miniature 
temple  of  alabaster  whiteness,  with  arches  leading  to  some  interior 
Holy  of  Holies,  v/hose  sacred  places  may  never  be  profaned  by 
eye  or  foot.  The  hard  calcareous  formation  about  it  is  smooth, 
and  bright  as  a clean  swept  pavement.  Several  columns  of 
purest  white  rise  to  a height  of  eight  to  ten  feet,  supporting  a roof 
that  covers  the  entire  vent,  forming  fantastic  arches  and  en-  ' 
trances,  out  of  which  the  water  is  ejected  during  an  eruption  fifty 
or  sixty  feet.  The  entire  surface  is  composed  of  the  most  delicate 
bead-work  imaginable,  white  as  the  driven  snow,  massive  but 
elaborately  elegant,  and  so  peerlessly  beautiful  that  the  hand  of 
desecration  has  not  been  laid  upon  it,  and  it  stands  without  flaw 
or  break  in  all  its  primal  beauty — a grotto  of  pearls,  '‘the  beautiful 
princess  of  all  the  realm.” 

Proceeding  i5o  yards  farther,  and  passing  two  hot  springs,  a 
remarkable  group  of  geysers  is  discovered.  One  of  these  has  a 
Tiuge  crater,  five  feet  in  diameter,  shaped  something  like  the  base 
of  a horn — one  side  broken  down — the  highest  point  being  fif- 
teen feet  above  the  mound  on  which  it  stands.  This  proved  to 
be  a tremendous  geyser,  which  has  been  called  the  Giant.  It 
throws  a column  of  Avater  the  size  of  the  opening  to  the  meas- 
ured altitude  of  130  feet,  and  continues  the  display  for  an  hour 
and  a half.  The  amount  of  water  discharged  is  immense,  almost 
equal  in  quantity  to  that  in  the  river,  the  volume  of  which  dur- 
ing the  eruption  is  doubled.  But  one  eruption  of  this  geyser 
was  observed.  Another  large  crater  close  by  has  several  ori- 
fices, and  with  ten  small  jets  surrounding  it,  formed  probably  one 
connecting  system.  The  hill  built  up  by  this  group  covers  an 
acre  of  ground,  and  is  thirty  feet  in  height. 


:>  lo 


THE  GRAND  GEYSERS. 


Near  the  middle  of  the  Upper  Geyser  basin  is  the  “ Grand 
Geyser,”  the  most  remarkable  in  many  respects  in  the  world. 
Lieutenant  Doane,  U.  S.  A.,  who  spent  several  days  in  its  imme- 
diate vicinity  in  1877,  thus  describes  it:  “Opposite  camp,  on 
the  other  side  of  Fire  Hole  river,  is  a high  ledge  of  stalagmite, 
sloping  from  the  base  of  the  mountain  down  to  the  river.  Nu- 
merous small  knolls  are  scattered  over  its  surface,  the  craters  of 
boiling  springs,  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  in  diameter ; some 
of  these  throw  water  to  the  height  of  three  and  four  feet.  On 
the  summit  of  this  bank  of  rock  is  the  grand  geyser  of  the  world, 
a well  in  the  strata,  twenty  by  twenty-five  feet  in  diametric 
.measurements  (the  perceptible  elevation  of  the  rim  being  but  a 
few  inches),  and  when  quiet  having  a visible  depth  of  100  feet. 
The  edge  of  the  basin  is  bounded  by  a heavy  fringe  of  rock,  and 
stalagmite  in  solid  layers  is  deposited  by  the  overflowing  waters. 
When  an  eruption  is  about  to  occur,  the  basin  gradually  fills 
with  boiling  water  to  within  a few  feet  of  the  surface,  then  sud- 
denly, with  heavy  concussions,  immense  clouds  of  steam  rise  to 
the  height  of  5oo  feet,  and  the  whole  great  body  of  water,  twenty 
by  twenty-five  feet,  ascends  in  one  gigantic  column  to  the  height 
of  ninety  feet  ; from  the  apex  of  this  column  five  great  jets  shoot 
up,  radiating  slightly  from  each  other,  to  the  unparalleled  altitude 
of  2 5o  feet  from  the  ground.  The  earth  trembles  under  the 
descending  deluge  from  this  vast  fountain  ; a thousand  hissing 
sounds  are  heard  in  the  air  ; rainbows  encircle  the  summits  of 
the  jets  with  a halo  of  celestial  glory.  The  falling  water  plows 
up  and  bears  away  the  shelly  strata,  and  a seething  flood  pours 
down  the  slope  and  into  the  river.  It  is  the  grandest,  the  most 
majestic,  and  most  terrible  fountain  in  the  world.  After  playing 
thus  for  twenty  minutes,  it  gradually  subsides,  the  water  lowers 
into  the  crater  out  of  sight,  the  steam  ceases  to  escape,  and  all 
is  quiet.  This  grand  geyser  played  three  times  in  the  afternoon, 
but  appears  to  be  irregular  in  its  periods,  as  we  did  not  see  it  in 
eruption  again  while  in  the  valley.  Its  waters  are  of  a deep 
ultramarine  color,  clear  and  beautiful.  The  waving  to  and  fro 
of  the  gigantic  fountain,  in  a bright  sunlight,  when  its  jets  are  at 
their  highest,  affords  a spectacle  of  wonder  of  which  any  descrip- 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


5 I i 

tion  can  give  but  a feeble  idea.  Our  whole  party  were  wild 
with  enthusiasm  ; many  declared  it  was  300  feet  in  height  ; but 
I have  kept,  in  the  figures  as  set  down  above,  within  the  limits 
of  absolute  certainty.’’ 

“ In  some  of  the  elements  of  beauty  and  interest,”  says  Pro- 
fessor R.  W.  Raymond,  “ the  Lower  Geyser  basin  is  superior 
to  its  more  startling  rival.  It  is  broader  and  more  easily  sur- 
veyed as  a whole  ; and  its  springs  are  more  numerous,  though 
not  so  powerful.  Nothing  can  be  lovelier  than  the  sight,  at 
sunrise,  of  the  white  steam-column,  tinged  with  rosy  morning, 
ascending  against  the  background  of  the  dark  pine  woods  and 
the  clear  sky  above.  The  variety  in  form  and  character  of 
these  springs  is  quite  remarkable.  A few  of  them  make  faint 
deposits  of  sulphur,  though  the  greater  number  appear  to  be 
purely  silicious.  One  very  large  basin  (forty  by  sixty  feet)  is 
filled  with  the  most  beautiful  slime,  varying  in  tint  from  white 
to  pink,  which  blobs  and  spits  away,  trying  to  boil,  like  a heavy 
theologian  forcing  a laugh  to  please  a friend  in  spite  of  his  nat- 
ural specific  gravitv.  . . . The  laugs  or  extinct  geysers  are 

the  most  beautiful  objects  of  all.  Around  their  borders  the 
white  incrustations  form  quaint  arabesques  and  ornamental 
bosses,  resembling  petrified  vegetable  growths.  The  sides  of 
the  reservoir  are  corrugated  and  indented  fancifully,  like  the 
recesses  and  branching  passages  of  a fairy  cavern.  The  water 
is  brightly  but  not  deeply  blue.  Over  its  surface  curls  a light 
vapor  ; through  its  crystal  clearness  one  may  gaze,  apparently, 
to  unfathomable  depths  ; and,  seen  through  this  wondrous  me- 
dium, the  white  walls  seem  like  silver,  ribbed  and  crusted  with 
pearl.  When  the  sun  strikes  across  the  scene,  tlie  last  touch  of 
unexpected  beauty  is  added.  The  projected  shadow  of  the  dec- 
orated edge  reveals  by  contrast  new  glories  in  the  depths  ; 
every  ripple  on  the  surface  makes  marvellous  play  of  tint  and 
shade  on  the  pearly  bottom.  One  half-expects  to  see  a 
lovely  naiad  emerge  with  floating  grace  from  her  fantastically 
carven  covert,  and  gayly  kiss  her  snowy  hand  through  the 
blue  wave. 

“In  one  of  these  laugs  the  whitened  skeleton  ot  a mountain 


5 1 2 THE  LOWER  GEYSER  BASIN  AND  ITS  LAVGS. 

buffalo  was  discovered.  By  whatever  accident  he  met  his  fate 
there,  no  king  or  saint  was  ever  more  magnificently  entorribedi 
Not  the  shrine  of  St.  Antony  of  Padua  with  its  white  marbles 
and  its  silver  lamps,  is  so  resplendent  as  this  sepulcher  in  the 
wilderness.” 

Yet  Geyserdom  is  not  a paradise.  “The  Geyser  basins  in 
themselves,”  says  Rev.  Dr.  Hoyt,  “ are  very  ghastly  places. 
Save  the  jeweled  cups,  and  the  upward  plunge  of  the  white 
water,  there  is  little  beauty  in  them  that  we  should  desire  them. 
Where  the  geysers  spurt  up  their  hot  and  hissing  waves,  and 
scatter  them  about,  and  then  deposit  as  the  scattered  waters 
cool,  the  lime,  and  magnesia,  and  sulphur,  with  which  they  are 
charged,  nothing  green  can  grow.  The  aspect  is  that  of  a des- 
ert, except  only  that  the  sand  instead  of  being  brown  is  white. 
It  seems  more  like  a place  of  death  than  life — your  horse’s  feet 
are  scalded  in  the  hot  streams — you  must  be  very  careful  where 
you  tread,  lest-  the  thin  crust  break  beneath  you,  and  let  you 
down  into  the  boiling  pools,  and  sudden  death  below.  The  air 
is  stenchful  with  the  breath  of  noxious  gases.  Flowers  do 
not  bloom  ; grass  cannot  spread  its  greenness  ; trees,  if  they 
come  within  the  circle  of  the  geyser  action,  stand  bleached, 
leafless,  lifeless.  It  Is  the  terrible  side  of  nature  which  you 
see. 

Turning  our  faces  northward  we  follow  the  FIrehole  or  Up- 
per Madison  river  for  four  or  five  miles  from  the  Lower  Geyser 
basin,  till  at  a point  opposite  a forty  foot  fall  of  the  river  we  en- 
ter upon  the  New  Norris  road,  constructed  by  Superintendent 
Norris  in  1878.  which  leads  to  new  wonders  of  various  kinds. 
The  Gibbon’s  fork  of  the  Firehole  or  Madison  river,  which  has 
its  source  in  or  near  Beaver  lake,  in  the  upper  Madison  Range, 
from  its  source  to  its  mouth  abounds  in  geysers,  hot-springs, 
and  fumaroles.  These  are  not  only  found  on  its  banks,  in  its 
canons,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  its  numerous  water-falls,  but  along 
the  slopes  of  the  mountains  adjacent  there  are  four  or  five  of 
these  Geyser  basins.  The  southernmost  of  these,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  fork  known  as  Gibbon’s  Firehole  Basin,  is  on  the 
Howard  road. 


OKLAHOMA  TERRITOKY. 


Oklahoma  Territory. — Until  of  recent  years,  die  paternal 
Government  displayed  censurable  carelessness  ;,bout  the  public 
lands  of  the  re^jions  inaccessible  before  the  railroads  reached 
them.  But  the  complaints  from  intending  homesteaders  at  last 
overcame  the  barrier  of  speculators,  and  their  clamor  led  to  active 
progress  in  liberating  tillable  tracts  from  the  indolence  of  the 
savages  and  apathy  of  those  who  expected  the  natural  increment 
of  value  to  enrich  their  heirs. 

In  1869  and  earlier,  much  bad  blood  was  engendered  by  the 
slaying  of  settlers  on  the  Indian  Territory  border  and  alter  the 
war  which  punished-  the  savages,  the  demand  for  their  unused 
land  became  irresistible.  Anticipating  the  throwing  open  of 
these  acres  for  settlement,  thousands  of  pioneers  encamped  with 
families  and  teams  on  the  southern  Kansas  border  and  under  ex- 
perienced leaders,  made  descents  upon  the  track  called  “ Okla- 
homa.” The  word,  of  aboricrinal  origin,  signifies  “Beautiful 
Land,”  and  explains  the  land  hunger  of  the  boomers. 

But  almost  immediately,  before  log  cabins  v/ere  erected  or 
the  plow  driven  in  a long  furrow,  the  U.  S.  troops  drove  them 
off.  They  would  await  a better  opportunity  and  the  return  of 
their  captains,  who  were  taken  to  the  nearest  military  post  only 
to  be  released. 

In  1880  the  bill  for  organizing  “ Oklahoma”  as  a Territory 
was  introduced ; but  it  was  not  until  1890  that  it  was  made  a law. 
Scenes  of  suffering,  riot  and  rapacity  were  witnessed  when  at 
length  the  region  was  declared  open  to  settlers.  Owing  to  the 
political  excitement,  the  crops  were  not  sown  speedily  enough 
and  some  distress  has  been  the  outcome.  Besides,  the  land  did 
not  prove  by  test  to  be  equal  to  the  highly  colored  pictures  drawn. 
The  capital  was  decided  to  be  Guthrie,  amid  intense  fervor. 
The  legislature  meets  biennially  for  a session  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  days.  The  governor  is  Republican.  Oklahoma 
comes  forty-sixth  in  population  among  the  States  and  Territories. 

The  figure  is  61,834,  but  some  5, 000  are  claimed  by  Texas. 


5i4 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

ALASKA. 

Alaska,  the  unorganized  Northwestern  Territory  of  the 
United  States,  bears  about  the  same  relation  to  “Our  Western 
Empire  ” that  Eastern  Siberia  and  Kamschatka  do  to  the  Rus- 
sian Empire;  it  is  remote  from  the  rest  of  the  Empire,  of  vast 
territorial  extent,  but  desolate  and  cold  to  the  last  degree,  and 
can  never  become  very  populous,  or  of  any  remarkable 
economic  value,  until  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  changes,  and  what 
is  now  an  Arctic  climate  becomes  torrid,  or  at  least  temperate. 

We  know  very  well  what  is  said  about  the  ameliorating  effect 
of  the  Kuro-Siwo  or  Japan  current  upon  the  climate  of  those 
high  latitudes  ; but  the  Gulf  stream,  a similar  but  more  powerful 
current,  has  not  rendered  Iceland  a paradise,  or  Novaya  Zemla 
a fit  habitation  for  men,  though  both  are  in  quite  as  low  latitudes 
as  most  of  Alaska.  We  hope  for  some  return  of  the  national 
outlay  from  the  fisheries,  the  fur  trade,  and  the  timber  of  Alaska. 
The  precious  metals  may  be  found  there — probably  they  will; 
and  it  may  be  possible  on  some  favored  spots  to  raise  oats  and 
barley,  though  not,  to  any  extent,  wheat  or  corn;  but  in  a climate 
which  is  “ nine  months  winter  and  the  other  three  months  late  in 
the  fall”  how  can  either  mining  or  agriculture  be  expected  to  pros- 
per? Even  the  ice,  which  is  always  abundant,  does  not  prove  pro- 
fitable as  an  article  of  export,  the  manufacture  of  ice  by  machin- 
ery having  been  so  far  perfected  that  it  can  be  produced  in  San 
Francisco  as  cheaply  as  it  can  be  imported  from  Alaska.  No 
ice  is  now  exported  from  the  Territory. 

That  we  may  do  no  injustice  to  this  great  northwestern  land,  let 
us  proceed  to  say  what  can  justly  be  said  in  its  favor. 

Alaska  is  not,  as  is  supposed  by  those  who  have  given  but 
little  attention  to  the  subject,  a vast  compact  tract  of  territory. 
It  has  been  not  inaptly  compared  to  the  head  and  horns  of  a 
Texas  bull — Yukon  district  forming  the  massive  head,  the  Sitkan 


ALASKA  NOT  A PARADISE. 


5 1 5 

shore  and  archipelago  forming  one  horn,  and  the  Aliaskan  penin- 
sula and  the  Aleutian  Islands  the  other.  The  tips  of  the  two 
horns  are  6o®  of  longitude  or  3,000  miles  apart  ; and  from  the 
southernmost  of  the  islands  of  the  Aleutian  group,  to  Point  Bar- 
row  in  the  Arctic  ocean,  the  northernmost  point  of  Yukon  is  a 
little  more  than  20°  of  latitude,  or  about  1,400  miles. 

The  area,  according  to  the  last  report  of  the  Land  Office,  is 
577,390  square  miles,  or  369,629,600  acres.  The  shore  lines 
around  the  islands  and  peninsulas  areroughly  estimated  at  26,000 
miles,  orthe  entire  circumference  of  the  globe.  The  entire  popula- 
tion of  this  Territory  at  the  time  of  its  acquisition  from  Russia 
was  said  to  be  about  29,000,  of  which  26,800  were  said  to  be  In- 
dians and  the  remainder  Caucasians  and  creoles.  It  has  not  mate- 
rially increased  since. 

Topography — Mountains, — The  Alaskan  range,  which  seems 
to  be  a combination  of  the  Coast,  Cascade  and  Rocky  Mountain 
Chains,  passes  northwestward  through  British  Columbia  a little 
east  of  the  Sitkan  Division  of  Alaska,  enters  the  Yukon  Division 
between  the  sixtieth  and  sixty-second  parallels,  and  keeping  a 
course  parallel  with  and  at  a little  distance  from  the  left  bank  of 
the  Yukon  river,  extends  north  nearly  as  far  as  Fort  Yukon  in 
latitude  66°,  turns  sharply  south  and  forming  the  backbone  of  the 
Aliaskan  peninsula  and  the  Aleutian  islands,  each  of  which  is  a 
peak  and  generally  a volcanic  peak  of  the  range,  till  finally  its 
summits  are  all  sunk  in  the  deepest  part  of  the  northern  Pacific 
ocean.  This  range  has  the  loftiest  peaks  in  North  America 
outside  of  Mexico.  Among  these  are  Mount  St.  Elias,  19,600 
feet  in  height;  Mount  Cook,  16,000  feet;  Mount  Crillon,  16,900  ; 
Mount  Fairweathcr,  16,600;  while  of  the  partially  submerged 
volcanic  peaks,  Sheshaldin  is  9,000  feet  above  the  water  ; Una- 
lashka,  6,691  feet;  Atka,  4,862  feet ; Kyska,  3,700  feet;  while 
poor  Attu,  the  westernmost  of  the  group,  can  only  lift  its  head 
3.084  feet  above  the  deep  valley  of  the  Pacific. 

In  addition  to  the  Alaskan  range,  there  are  several  other 
mountain  ranges  of  less  elevation:  among  them  are  the  Shakto- 
lik  and  Ulukuk  Hills,  near  Norton’s  sound  ; the  Yukon  and  Ro 
manzoff  Hills,  north  of  the  Yukon  river:  the  Kayiuh  and  Nowika- 


5i6 


OUR  IVES  TER  A EMPIRE. 


kat  mountains  east  and  south  of  the  river,  and  a low  rano-e  of 

o 

hills  borderinor  on  the  Arctic  coast. 

O 

Rivers, — The  great  river  of  the  Territory  is  the  Yukon,  whose 
sources  are  in  the  Chippewayan  and  Alaskan  range,  in  British 
America.  It  is  more  than  2.000  miles  in  length,  and  is  navigable, 
when  not  frozen  over,  for  i,5oo  miles.  The  delta  across  its  five 
mouths  is  seventy  miles  wide,  and  the  river  itself  is  from  one  to 
five  miles  wide  for -the  first  1,000  miles  of  its  course.  One  of  its 
largest  tributaries,  the  Porcupine  river,  has  most  of  its  course 
above  the  Arctic  circle.  The  Tananah,  2 5o  miles  in  length,  and 
the  Nowikakat,  112  miles,  are  also  tributaries  of  the  Yukon. 
The  Inland  river,  which  flows  into  Kotzebue  sound,  and  the  Col- 
ville, which  discharges  its  waters  into  the  Arctic  ocean,  are  the 
only  other  rivers  north  of  the  Yukon.  South  of  it  are  the  Kons- 
koquim,  about  600  miles  in  length,  the  Nushagak,the  Sushitna, 
the  Atna  or  Copper  river,  and  in  the  Sitkan  division  the  Chilcat, 
the  Takou  and  the  Stickine.  The  last  is  about  2 5o  miles  in 
length. 

It  is  divided  by  natural  lines  into  three  grand  divisions,  vary- 
ing each  from  the  other  in  natural  characteristics  and  value  : 

1.  The  Sitkan  Division,  triangular  in  shape  with  the  latitudinal 
line  of  54°  40'  north  for  the  southern  boundary,  and  the  longitu- 
dinal line  of  141°  west  for  the  western,  and  on  the  north  and  east 
following  the  summits  of  the  Coast  Range  of  mountains  between 
these  points,  with  a proviso  that  this  strip  of  shore  shall  never 
exceed  ten  marine  leagues  in  width. 

2.  The  Yukon  Division,  consisting  of  all  the  continent  west 
of  14  C as  far  north  as  the  Frozen  Ocean. 

3.  The  islands  not  included  in  the  Sitkan  Division,  comprising 
all  the  important  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  north  of  5.).°  40', 
from  Alaska  to  Kamschatka,  known  generally  as  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  and  also  the  Aliaskan  peninsula,  and  the  Kodiak  or 
Kadiak  Islands,  east  of  that  peninsula,  and  the  Pribyloff  group, 
which  are  remarkable  for  the  vast  numbers  of  the  fur-seal  caught 
there. 

In  the  first  or  Sitkan  Division,  there  were  in  1867  about  800 
natives  and  some  800  whites  and  creoles  ; in  the  Yukon,  8.000 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  ALASKA. 


5i7 

natives,  and  lOO  whites  and  creoles  ; and  in  the  remainder  of 
Alaska,  the  Island  Districts,  17,300  natives  and  1,300  whites  and 
creoles. 

This  meagre  population  is  grouped  entirely  around  the  sea- 
board and  large  rivers.  A glance  at  the  best  map  will  show  that 
of  the  interior  of  the  Yukon  District  geographers  know  very 
little.  What  rivers  and  lakes  are  traced  upon  the  maps  are 
usually  located  upon  slight  and  inaccurate  information,  derived 
from  the  natives.  The  interior  of  the  islands  and  coasts  longest 
peopled  by  a civilized  race  is  almost  altogether  ignota  terra.  The 
C'oast  line  of  Baranoff  Island,  on  which  Sitka  is  located,  is  well 
known  and  accurately  defined  upon  the  charts,  but  the  interior  is 
entirely  unexplored.  The  only  road  at  Sitka  runs  into  the  woods 
to  the  distance  of  a mile,  and  then  stops  before  a wall  of  dense 
forest  and  undergrowth.  The  growth  of  stunted  trees  all  along 
the  shores  of  the  islands  and  main  land  of  the  Sitkan  Division  is 
so  thick  as  to  be  almost  impenetrable.  There  is  one  instance, 
at  least,  of  a man’s  having  given  an  entire  day  to  the  work  of 
penetrating  inland,  and  at  the  end  of  his  labor  finding  himself 
less  than  a mile  from  the  shore. 

Geology, — The  greater  part  of  this  vast  Territory  has  under- 
gone changes  from  volcanic  eruptions  which  have  completely 
altered  the  character  of  its  rocks.  This  is  particularly  the  case 
in  the  Sitkan  and  Aleutian  Divisions,  in  which  there  are  sixty- 
one  volcanoes  which  have  been  active  within  1 5o  years.  The 
violence  of  the  volcanic  action  seems  to  be  decreasing,  and  of 
these  sixty-one  only  ten  are  now  in  a condition  of  active  and 
constant  eruption.  There  are  also  very  many  extinct  volcanoes 
in  the  Sitkan  Division,  and  several  are  known  in  Yukon. 

The  immense  shore  line  and  the  mountain  slopes  are  crowded 
with  glaciers ; some  of  these  are  the  most  stupendous  in  the 
world.  One  of  these  is  described  as  fifty  miles  in  length,  and 
terminating  on  the  sea-coast  in  a perpendicular  ice-wall  300  feet 
high  and  eight  miles  broad  ; another,  thirty-five  miles  above 
Wrangell,  on  the  Stickine  river,  is  said  to  be  forty  miles  long  at 
the  base,  four  or  five  miles  across,  and  variously  estimated  at 
from  5oo  to  1,000  feet  in  thickness. 


5i8 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


Mineral  Wealth, — Alaska  is  known  to  possess  coal  beds  of 
good  quality  and  of  great  extent.  Most  of  the  coal  beds  are  in 
the  tertiary,  and  are  properly  lignite,  though  of  the  best  quality. 
That  in  the  Sitkan  District  has  been  so  far  changed  by  volcanic 
action  that  it  is  in  some  places  a semi-anthracite.  Petroleum  is 
said  to  have  been  found  of  excellent  quality  and  nearly  odorless 
near  the  Bay  of  Katmai  and  on  Copper  river. 

Copper,  native,  or  very  rich  copper  ores,  have  been  found  on 
Copper  river,  at  Kasa-an  bay,  at  Whale  bay,  below  Sitka,  and 
in  Kadiak  Island. 

Iron  exists  all  over  the  Territory,  and  graphite  in  several 
places.  There  is  bismuth  of  fine  quality  on  Vostovia  Mountain, 
and  gypsum,  kaolin,  marble,  and  the  more  common  of  the  pre- 
cious stones,  agate,  carnelian,  amethyst,  etc.,  are  sufficiently 
plentiful. 

Gold  undoubtedly  exists  in  the  Territory,  and  probably  at  sev- 
eral points.  In  the  Sitkan  District  there  are  several  mines  which 
have  been  worked  to  some  extent  on  Baranoff  (or  Sitka)  Island; 
two  or  three  formerly  worked  on  the  streams  falling  into  Ste- 
phen’s passage,  about  seventy-five  miles  north  of  Fort  Wrangell, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Stickine  river. 

The  gold  mines  of  the  Stickine  river  are  all  located  in  British 
Columbia,  and  as  the  stores  from  which  the  most  of  the  miners’ 
supplies  are  furnished  are  upon  the  river,  the  business  is  diverted 
to  the  British  possessions.  Very  many  miners,  however,  winter  at 
Wrangell,  and  freight  bound  to  points  on  the  Stickine  river  is  at 
this  place  transferred  to  the  small  river  steamers.  Some  gold 
claims  have  been  located  near  Sitka,  and  specimens  of  ore  sent 
to  the  assay  office  at  Victoria  have  been  found  to  contain  a fair 
quantity  of  the  precious  metal.  A quartz  mill  was  erected  during 
1878,  and  it  was  intended  to  develop  one  of  the  mines,  but  the 
unpleasant  weather  and  short  days  of  winter  will  render  it  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  carry  on  operations  during  more  than  six 
months  of  the  year.  No  sufficient  amount  of  capital  has  as  yet 
been  invested,  nor  have  the  mines  been  sufficiently  worked  to 
determine  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  Territory.  Many  who  have 
given  the  subject  great  attention  are  fuly  convinced  that  valuable 
deposits  of  the  precious  metals  exist. 


GOLD  MINING 


5i9 

A receiit  report  from  Sitka,  states  that  gold  had  been  dis- 
covered at  Tahon,  an  Indian  settlement  on  the  river  of  the  same 
name,  about  1 5o  miles  north  of  Sitka,  and  near  the  border  of 
British  Columbia.  Further  reports  only  increased  the  excite- 
ment, and  when  specimens  of  the  ore  were  brought  to  Sitka, 
which  yielded  $200  of  pure  gold  to  300  pounds  of  ore,  the  ex- 
citement became  so  intense  that  the  people  began  to  migrate 
thither  in  such  numbers  that  the  town  was  almost  depopulated. 
It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  these  mines  prove  as  rich  as  they 
seem  to  promise.  If  they  do,  they  will  be  profitable,  although 
they  can  not  be  worked  more  than  four  or  five  months  in  the 
year.  The  Alaskan  Mountains  curve  southwestward  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Yukon,  and  extend  along  the  Aliaskan  peninsula  and 
through  the  Aleutian  Islands.  They  seem  to  be  the  consolida- 
tion of  the  Rocky,  Cascade  and  Coast  Ranges.  These  moun- 
tains, according  to  all  analogies,  should  contain  both  gold  and 
silvei\  and  in  all  probability  they  do.  If  the  lodes  are  very  rich. 
It  may  pay  to  work  them,  though  the  expense  will  be  much 
greater  than  that  of  working  mines  farther  south. 

Zoology. — The  animals  of  Alaska  belong  rather  to  the  fauna 
of  the  Arctic  than  the  Temperate  Zone.  The  musk  ox  is  found 
in  Yukon  District,  and  the  reindeer,  though  of  a different  species 
from  the  European.  The  polar  bear  frequents  the  shores  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  and  sometimes  ventures  as  far  south  as  Kotzebue 
sound.  The  elk  and  moose  are  seen,  though  rarely  ; the  Rocky 
Mountain  goat  and  sheep  (the  bighorn),  several  species  of  fox, 
the  mink,  beaver,  marten,  lynx,  otter,  sea-otter,  black  bear,  wol- 
verine, whistler,  ermine,  marmot,  skunk,  muskrat  and  wolf.  Of 
amphibia,  the  seal,  sea-otter,  whale,  porpoise,  narwhal,  etc.,  are 
abundant.  Its  birds  are  largely  game  birds,  the  ptarmigan, 
grouse,  wild  geese,  teal,  ducks,  brant,  etc.,  at  certain  seasons,  and 
eagles,  fishhawks,  gulls,  the  great  owl,  etc.,  etc.  Of  the  fish  we 
speak  elsewhere. 

Let  us  now  take  up  the  divisions  in  detail,  and  endeavor  to 
ascertain  what  each  can  produce  with  profit.  And,  first,  of  these  : 

Sitkan  Division. — Mr.  Blaine  states  that  “no  grass  has 
een  grown,  and  the  small  gardens  at  Sitka  and  Wrangell  pro- 


520 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


duce  only  a tew  of  the  hardiest  vegetables.  So  great  is  the 
moisture  that  hay  can  not  readily  be  cured,  wheat  ripened,  nor 
potatoes  raised.  Even  cabbages  will  not  head.  While  our 
troops  were  in  the  Territory,  a few  cattle  were  with  great  difficulty 
kept  in  the  District,  but  there  is  not  at  present  a cow  in  the  whole 
military  Division  of  Alaska.  Beef  is  a luxury  most  highly  prized, 
the  only  meat  being  an  occasional  haunch  of  venison,  and,  in  the 
proper  season,  small  game.  The  mountains  as  a rule  descend 
abruptly  to  the  sea,  and  the  small  patches  of  level  land  are  few 
and  far  between.  In  a word,  agriculturally  this  whole  district  is 
absolutely  worthless.  There  is  no  fodder  for  cattle,  and  the 
ground  under  the  most  careful  cultivation  yields  nothing  but  the 
poorest  varieties  of  the  most  insignificant  vegetables.  The  hand 
of  man  can  do  little  to  add  to  the  value  of  the  Sitkan  Division. 

“ The  Sitkan  Division  does,  however,  possess  a great  abun- 
dance of  most  valuable  ship-timber.  The  wood,  known  as 
yellow  cedar,  and  sometimes  called  camphor- wood,  which  is  the 
most  durable  of  all  woods  for  purposes  of  ship-building,  is  found 
in  large  quantities,  and  the  Sitka  spruce,  inferior  to  this,  but  of 
very  great  value,  is  most  plentiful.  Logs  of  either  of  these  woods 
can  be  easily  procured  at  very  small  expense.  Lumber  has  been 
sawed  at  a total  cost  of  three  dollars  per  thousand,  which  would 
easily  command  from  twelve  to  fifteen  dollars  in  San  Francisco. 
There  has  been  for  some  time  a small  saw-mill  in  Sitka,  and 
another  has  recently  been  built  in  Klahwoch,  but  only  trifling 
quantities  of  lumber  have  as  yet  been  sawed  at  either  place. 
The  vast  tracts  of  timber  land  in  Oregon,  Washington  and 
Northern  California  will,  for  many  years,  supply  the  market 
of  the  Pacific  coast. 

“ The  fur  trade  of  the  Sitkan  Division  is  at  present  the  most 
important  interest.  The  small  amount  of  business  now  trans- 
acted at  Sitka  is  entirely  dependent  upon  the  exchange  of  com- 
modities for  furs  and  peltries.  For  the  past  few  years  there  has 
not  been  a sufficient  demand  for  furs  to  make  high  prices  or 
large  gains.  Fashion  has  frowned,  at  the  dictation,  perhaps,  of 
the  hard  times,  and  competition  among  traders  has  assisted  in 
reducing  the  profits.  All  the  merchants  profess  to  have  lost 


THE  SITKAN  DIVISION  OF  ALASKA. 


521 


money,  and  it  is  the  general  opinion  that  none  have  made  any. 
The  fur-seal  is  not  found  in  the  waters  adjacent  to  Sitka,  but 
large  quantities  of  other  valuable  furs  are  brought  to  this  place 
and  to  Wrangell  by  the  Indians  and  accumulated  by  traders. 
Fur-trading  is  in  its  very  nature  little  suited  to  the  permanent 
prosperity  of  a country.  It  demands  the  frontier  and  the  wilder- 
ness as  the  seat  of  operations,  and  is  perforce  killed,  as  a country 
is  settled  and  its  resources  developed.  It  is  the  enemy  of  civili- 
zation, and  the  more  profitable  it  is,  the  sooner  does  it  come  to 
an  end.  Year  by  year,  as  the  circle  of  population  widens,  the 
trappers  are  driven  farther  to  the  north.  Astoria,  for  years  the 
center  of  the  trade,  long  ago  yielded  its  supremacy,  and  to-day 
no  furs  are  sold  in  that  market  at  first  hand.  A large  part  of  the 
world’s  supply  must  henceforth  come  from  Alaska.  She  has  no 
rival  on  this  continent,  and  in  the  most  important  branches  no 
formidable  competitor  on  the  globe. 

“ The  fisheries  of  the  Sitkan  waters  will  perhaps  ultimately 
prove  the  most  valuable  resource.  They  have,  however,  until 
very  recently  been  of  but  little  practical  value.  A few  barrels  of 
salted  fish  have  been  annually  exported,  and  the  inhabitants 
have  to  a large  extent  sustained  life  on  the  products  of  the  sea. 
Within  the  past  two  years  two  salmon  canneries  have  been  built, 
and  quite  a large  amount  of  money  invested  in  this  enterprise, 
but  lack  of  information  does  not  permit  me  to  say  whether  the 
venture  has  proved  successful. 

“ It  was  said  in  support  of  the  Alaskan  purchase  that  all  the  ice 
of  the  Pacific  coast  was  imported  from  that  Territory  ; but  the 
value  of  the  export  was  never  in  a single  year  more  than  $30,000, 
and  the  successful  introduction  of  machinery  for  the  production 
of  ice  artificially  has  caused  the  business  to  rapidly  decline  and 
disappear.  No  ice  is  now  exported  from  any  portion  of  the 
Territory.” 

2.  T/ie  Yukon  District. — Of  this  region  the  massive  head  of 
the  bull,  whose  left  horn,  the  Sitkan  Division,  we  have  just  been 
considering,  it  has  been  the  fashion  with  some  writers  to  speak  in 
the  most  glowing  terms.  It  was  the  garden  of  Alaska.”  Here 
wheat  and  all  the  other  cereals  except  corn,  and  all  the  tubers  and 


522 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


vegetables  required  in  the  market  gardens  or  the  markets  of  the 
Pacific  coast,  could  be  raised  in  the  greatest  profusion.  In  the 
hot,  short  summer,  everything,  it  was  said,  grew  so  rapidly  that 
a vast  population  could  be  sustained  here.  The  later  commis- 
sioners and  explorers  do  not  corroborate  these  glowing  accounts. 
The  second  division,  called  the  Yukon,  has  been  less  explored 
than  either  of  the  others.  There  were  formerly  a few  Russian 
posts  in  the  Territory,  but  these  have  now  been  abandoned. 
At  Cook’s  Inlet,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sutchino  river,  and 
at  many  points  on  the  Yukon  river,  sufficient  grass  is  found 
to  afford  the  best  of  fodder  for  cattle,  and  wild  berries  and 
smaller  fruits  flourish  in  abundance.  The  range  of  the  thermom- 
eter at  a distance  from  the  sea-coast  is  far  greater  than  in  Sitka, 
or  near  the  sea-line,  and  the  summers  are  so  warm  as  to  produce 
the  most  luxuriant  vegetation.  'On  the  Yukon  river  the  sun  has 
been  known  in  the  month  of  July  to  burst  a spirit  thermometer, 
graduated  up  to  1 20"",  and  the  winters  are  Arctic  in  severity 
There  is  no  trouble  in  curing  hay  at  these  points,  and  there  is 
said  to  be  good  grazing  land  for  cattle.  It  will  of  course  be  nec- 
essary to  shelter  the  herds  during  more  than  half  of  the  year, 
and  fattening  for  market  will  not  therefore  be  profitable.  Fruit- 
trees  will  not  flourish,  and  while  some  experiments  have  been 
made  with  barley  and  oats,  which  are  said  to  have  been  satisfac- 
tory, not  a grain  of  wheat  has  ever  been  brought  to  maturity. 
South  of  the  Alaskan  Range,  save  at  Cook’s  Inlet  and  on  the 
peninsulas,  there  is  no  good  land,  and  north  of  the  mountains 
only  persistent  and  careful  cultivation  will  enable  the  farmers  to 
reap  satisfactory  results.  The  only  evidence  which  we  have  as 
to  the  land  is  from  experiments  made  by  the  Russians  and  the 
scientific  officers  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company. 
They  are  both  very  unsatisfactory,  especially  those  of  the  former, 
as  they  were  intrusted  to  Indians,  who,  being  utterly  ignorant  of 
agriculture  and  cattle-breeding,  conducted  them  most  unskillfully. 
There  are  also  said  to  be  valuable  coal-beds,  but  as  no  examina- 
tion was  ever  made  by  competent  geologists,  this  can  not  be' 
safely  affirmed.  Undoubtedly  there  is  considerable  free  copper 
in  the  district,  as  the  natives  formerly  employed  this  metal  in  the 


THE  YUKON  DIS  TRIG  T OF  ALA  SKA . 523 

manufacture  of  wagons  and  domestic  articles,  but  its  location  is 
at  present  unknown.  Fur  animals  abound,  especially  those  liv- 
ing upon  the  land.  Fort  St.  Michael  was  formerly  one  of  the 
chief  trading  posts  of  the  Russians,  and  many  of  the  fox  and 
beaver  skins  now  sent  from  the  north  Pacific  are  trapped  upon 
the  Yukon.  Good  timber  is  also  found  in  many  portions  of 
the  division,  but  it  is  not  so  accessible  nor  so  valuable  for  ship- 
building as  that  about  Sitka.  Fish  of  all  kinds,  especially  cod  and 
halibut,  are  very  abundant  at  Cook’s  Inlet  and  along  the  entire 
coast. 

3.  The  Island  District,  which  includes  the  Aliaskan  peninsula, 
the  large  island  of  Kadiak  and  the  group  of  islands  which  surround 
it,  the  Aleutian  Archipelago,  comprising  the  three  groups  of  the 
Fox,  and  Andreanowsky,  and  the  Blijnie  or  Rat  Islands,  the 
whole  constituting  the  right  horn  of  the  bull ; and  with  these  the 
Pribyloff  group  (the  home  of  the  fur  seal),  Nounivak,  Lawrence, 
and  the  St.  Matthew  group,  come  next  in  review.  “These  is- 
lands are  the  most  valuable  portion  of  our  Russian 
purchase.  The  island  of  Kadiak  and  others  of  the  Aleu- 
tian group  contain  very  good  arable  land.  The  cattle  distributed 
by  the  Russian  Commercial  Company  succeeded  here  far  better 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  Territory.  There  is  good  pasture 
land,  and  hay  can  be  made  with  greater  ease  than  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia  river.  There  is  also  an  encouraging  report  that 
a good  variety  of  potatoes  can  be  grown,  although  ‘the  tubers 
are  said  to  be  small.’  There  is  not  much  timber  of  good  quality 
upon  these  islands,  but  the  fisheries  are  of  a very  great  value. 
The  Aleuts,  who  are  the  chief  native  race,  are  by  nature  the 
most  honest  people  in  the  world.  On  the  islands  where  there 
are  no  forests,  driftwood  furnishes  the  principal  supply  of  fuel, 
and  it  is  said  that  the  unwritten  law  with  reference  to  the  rights 
of  property  is  so  strong  that,  should  an  Indian  discover  a log  of 
wood  which  it  is  not  then  convenient  for  him  to  carry  away,  he* 
may,  by  carrying  it  above  high-water  mark  and  placing  it  at 
right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  beach,  leave  it  with  full  assurance 
that  it  will  not  be  disturbed  until  his  convenience  warrants  the 
removal.  ‘ 


OUR  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 


524 

“ The  chief  sources  of  our  revenue  from  Alaska  are  in  what  is 
known  as  the  Pribyloff  Islands.  St.  Paul  and  St.  George,  two  of 
the  group,  now  furnish  almost  all  of  the  seal-skins  used  in  the 
world.  These  islands  abound  with  seal,  and  being  the  property 
of  the  United  States,  are  leased  by  the  government  to  the  Alaska 
Fur  Company.  The  number  of  seals  killed  each  year  is  limited 
by  law  to  100,000,  and  for  these  a royalty  of  two  dollars  each 
is  paid.  If  the  law  restricting  the  number  of  seals  annually  killed 
is  strictly  enforced,  this  industry  will  for  many  years  furnish  the 
chief  part  of  the  revenue  from  Alaska,  and  constitute  the  most 
valuable  product  of  the  Territory.’' 

A correspondent  of  the  Portland  Oregonian,  writing  from 
Sitka  gives  the  following  account  of  the  fisheries  : 

“ Alaska  is  destined  to  supply  the  world  with  fish.  Its  waters 
abound  in  halibut,  herring,  cod,  and  salmon  ; indeed  there  is 
hardly  a species  of  which  representatives  cannot  be  found.  While 
those  above  named  exist  here  in  endless  profusion,  flounders, 
black  bass,  rock-cod,  trout,  and  the  delicious  eulocous,  with  other 
varieties,  appear  in  vast  schools,  supplying  the  natives  with 
abundant  food  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

“ At  Klowak,  sixty  miles  from  Fort  Wrangell,  the  North  Pacific 
trading  and  packing  company  have  a large  fishery  in  operation, 
where  during  the  present  year  especial  attention  has  been  paid 
to  herring.  The  catch  this  spring  was  very  successful,  the  fish 
being  in  prime  condition,  and  not  only  larger  in  size  but  of  better 
flavor  than  ever  before  sent  to  market.  170  barrels  were  sent 
to  Portland  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  the  fish  to  dealers, 
and  if  desired  ten  times  that  amount  could  have  been  secured. 

Five  miles  from  the  town  of  Sitka  the  firm  of  Cutting&Co., 
have  a large  cannery  erected  where  thousands  of  salmon  are 
put  up  every  year  to  meet  the  demand  made  for  Alaska  salmon 
from  the  Eastern  markets.  While  the  salmon  from  these  waters 
have  not  the  gustable  richness,  and  lack  the  savory  flavor  of 
Columbia  river  salmon,  there  are  many  that  prefer  the  Alaskan 
species,  particularly  in  the  Eastern  States  and  foreign  countries. 

Mr.  Blaine  thus  describes  the  voyage  from  Nanaimo,  the  last 
port  of  British  Columbia,  to  Sitka  : 


CAN  ALASKA  BE  RECOMMENDED  TO  IMMIGRANTS.  52  5 

“ The  picturesque  parts  of  the  voyage  are  found  between  Na- 
naimo and  Sitka.  The  steamer  sweeps  through  a narrow  strait 
guarded  on  either  hand  by  snow-capped  mountains,  and  so  nar- 
row that  despite  all  your  knowledge  of  perspective  it  seems  as 
if  the  shores  meet  as  you  look  up  the  channel  from  the  bow  of 
the  ship.  On  either  side  mountains,  green  at  the  base  and  white 
at  the  summit,  overhang  the  water.  A patch  of  marble  cropping 
through  the  trees  forms  an  occasional  and  welcome  spot  of  color 
in  the  monotonous  green,  and  the  ripple  of  a cascade  agreeably 
breaks  the  stillness  which  everywhere  reigns  supreme.  For  days 
not  a living  thing  is  seen  ; no  animal  upon  the  land,  no  Indian 
on  the  water,  no  bird  in  the  air.  The  waves,  washed  by  the 
wheel  against  the  shore,  tremble  into  silence  ; the  hills  which 
echoed  the  whistle  sullenly  grow  calm  once  more,  and  you  seem 
shut  in  by  the  forces  of  nature,  and  in  the  power  of  the  genii  of 
sea  and  strand.  There  is  apathy  everywhere,  activity  no- 
where. High  up  in  the  sky  the  sun  rolls  lazily  along,  complet- 
ing the  task  in  twenty  hours  which  elsewhere  he  accomplishes  in 
fourteen.  The  nights  glitter  with  weird  light.  The  sunset  is  re- 
flected by  the  sunrise.  The  west  yet  glimmers  with  the  streaks 
of  day,  while  in  the  east  jocund  morn  stands  tiptoe  on  the  misty 
mountain-top.  At  lo  at  night  the  finest  print  is  read  with  ease, 
and  at  3 in  the  morning  the  sun  streaming  into  the  state  room 
wakens  you  from  sleep.” 

We  can  hardly  commend  Alaska  as  a favorable  point  for 
emigrants,  unless  it  be  those  hardy  Norsemen  whose  constant 
encounters  with  the  Arctic  climate  have  rendered  them  proof 
against  its  hardships  ; but  development,  though  slow  in  coming, 
will  yet  surely  reach  this  far-off  land  of  ice.  There  will  proba- 
bly be  no  great  change  in  the  climate.  Neither  wheat  nor 
dairy  products  will  be  exported  in  any  large  quantity,  but  the 
seal  and  sea-otter  furs,  and  the  furs  and  pelts  of  land  animals, 
will  increase  in  value  and  perhaps  in  numbers  ; the  magnificent 
forests  will  supplement  the  fast  diminishing  timber  product 
of  the  Pacific  coast,  and  the  fisheries  will  furnish  abundant  and 
healthful  food  to  millions  who  to-day  hardly  know  that  Alaska 
exists. 


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